The Impact of Stress on Health - Essay Example

The impact of stress on health Various scholars define the term stress differently; however, there is a consensus about individualdifferences in the perception of stress, which in turn affects the individual’s response to stress. Hans Selye (1925) defined stress as nonspecific responses of the body to demands made upon it. He theorized that stress resulted from both positive and negative changes in the internal and external environments. Of all the definitions, Carlson et al. provide a holistic definition of the term. According to them, stress is a pattern of cognitive, psychological, emotional, and behavioral responses to imagined or real stimuli, which an individual perceives as a threat to their wellbeing or a deterrent from their goals (Donovan et al., 2013). Based on the purpose it serves, Seyle distinguished between two types of stress (eustress and distress). Eustress represents a positive or favorable response to one’s environment, which facilitates growth by increasing one’s functional capacity. Conversely, distress represents a negative or unfavorable response to one’s environment. Distress results from an individual’s inability to cope with persistent or recurrent stress (Donovan et al., 2013). More often than not, people associate stress with negativity. Stress is unavoidable; therefore, it is vital for individuals to develop well-adjusted coping mechanisms, which in turn safeguard them from the harmful psychological, physiological, social effects of stress. Discussed are the effects of stress on health and possible coping strategies, which help in the mitigation of stress. Effects of stress The effects of stress on health are best understood from a bio-psycho-social perspective. Stress affects the physiological/biological function of a person’s life. Firstly, stress plays a significant role in predisposing the development of coronary diseases, which do not result from innate predispositions such as genetic anomalies or structural abnormalities in the circulatory system. Results from Logan et al.’s 2012 study that sought to investigate the role played by psychological stress in predisposing arterial stiffness among Korean Americans revealed that emotional stress response was a predictor of arterial stiffness among the subjects of the study. The researchers used anxiety to measure emotional response and took into account confounding factors such as age, gender, smoking, income and education (Logan et al., 2012). Findings from previous research informed their decision to focus on Korean Americans as the subjects of their study. Unlike Koreans residing in their home country, Korean Americans experience heightened distress while trying to adapt to cultural, economic and social norms of the American society. In fact, Chun, Knight and Youn (2007) approximate that compared to their counterparts residing in Korea, Korean Americans are more likely to develop hypertension (32%) (Logan et al., 2012). Various studies have uncovered contrasting results with regard to the effects of psychosocial stress on subjects’ dietary patterns, which in turn affect their Body Mass Index (BMI). A high percentage of results from cross-sectional studies investigating the correlation between BMI and psychosocial stress reported a weak correlation. Conversely, the results from longitudinal studies uncovered mixed reactions; for example, Kivimaki et al.’s study found a high correlation between weight gain and minimal job control and escalated job strain only among the study’s male participants (Block et al., 2009). In their study, Block et al. (2009) uncovered a correlation between weight gain and psychosocial stress whereby gender differences were attributable to the different domains of psychosocial stress. Weight gain among male participants with a high BMI baseline resulted from heightened psychosocial stress exacerbated by difficulty paying bills, absence of decision-authority and job-related demands. Conversely, weight gain among female participants with a high BMI baseline resulted from psychosocial stress worsened by perceived constraints in life, familial relationship strains, job-related demands and difficulty paying bills (Block et al., 2009). Stress also affects a person’s psychological function by increasing their probability of developing psychological disorders. Depression is a common side effect of persistent distress. According to the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM), which is a manual used by mental health practitioners to diagnose psychological disorders, various types of depression exist. The severity of the depression and the number of times it recurs determines the type. The symptom common to each type includes diminished interest in activities, neglect of duties such as increased absenteeism at work, significant weight loss or gain, erratic moods, indecisiveness resulting from the inability to concentrate, and insomnia or hyper-insomnia. Severely depressed individuals also have suicidal ideations whereby they are constantly preoccupied with suicidal thoughts. Stress also triggers negative feelings such as anxiousness, which can develop into an anxiety disorder such as Panic Disorder. However, it is important to note that eustress has psychological benefits for a person. As mentioned in the introduction, eustress functions to motivate individuals to work towards achieving their objectives (Mortillaro &Scherer, 2014). More often than not, one’s lack of motivation results from them persisting in their comfort zone for an extended duration. Mild stressors help to create discomfort, which motivate the individual to direct their efforts towards the eradication of the stressors. For example, targets set by management at the workplace for each employee helps to keep them on their toes, as they remain focused on their goals. In addition, eustress functions to safeguard one from harmful situations. Due to the physiological changes that accompany stress such as fluctuations in cortisol levels, learning occurs (Mortillaro & Scherer, 2014). Psychologists define learning as the relatively permanent change in behaviors exhibited or knowledge due to experience. Stressors either reinforce or deter the manifestation of behaviors, which in turn contributes to learning. For example, a stressor that elicits negative emotions such as fear and anxiousness warns an individual of impending danger. As a result, when the individual encounters the same stressor in future, they are able to respond in an appropriate manner. In sum, eustress helps to build an individual’s resilience, which refers to an individual’s ability to cope with changes in the environment (Mortillaro & Scherer, 2014). Stress also affects a person’s social function whereby more often than not, it heightens dysfunctional behavior in social settings such as work place, educational institutions among others. Various researchers have concluded that high stress levels exist among college students especially freshmen students. Pederson (2000) posits that the transition from adolescence to early adulthood is a period characterized by heightened stress levels resulting from the increased responsibilities accompanying enrolment into colleges. According to her, statistics indicate that freshmen account for the largest number of college students affected by stress. Possible reasons for this include; increased independence, more responsibilities, detachment from familiar settings, and pressure to perform well academically. Peer pressure is also a major stressor among freshman college students (Doyle, 2012). Social psychologists infer that humans gravitate towards associating with members who share similar traits; hence, becoming part of a group. This prevents them from displaying behaviors or voicing out opinions likely to lead to their banishment from the group. Freshmen in college affiliate themselves with different groups in order to satisfy their need to belong (Doyle, 2012). In the process, they assume the group’s identity conforming to the standards or rules of the group. However, they retain aspects of their “self”, which in some cases conflicts with aspects pertaining to the group. Negative peer pressure that conflicts with an individual’s socialized behaviors might result in heightened stress levels for the individual. The heightened stress levels among freshmen contribute to maladjusted behaviors such as increased use of alcohol and other substances. In addition, it leads to a decline in academic performance, as less time is set aside for studying. There have been numerous recent studies have explored work stress among health care workers in many countries. The studies also examined as to whether there could be an association between interpersonal relationship, burnout and stress. The exact linkages and interactions are yet not properly understood. The incidences where problematic relationships existed among team members are shown to increase burnout or at the very least, some form of feelings of stress and unease, which was shown to affect productivity (Demir, 2003). The not allowed but sometimes present verbal abuse from physicians was noted as being a source of very high stress for staff nurses (Manderino, 1997). In a study of two hundred and sixty RNs, the conflict that sometimes occurred with physicians was found to be more psychologically damaging to nurses than conflict within the nursing profession. Coping with Stress Reinforcing one’s resilience functions in the mitigation of the adverse consequences of stress. Resilience is strengthened through the development of well-adjusted mechanisms. Individually, a person can learn how to handle stress in a favorable manner. However, organizations also play an integral role in helping its employees deal with stress favorably. It is important to note that prevention of distress is more effective than dealing with distress at its full-blown stress. The latter proves more complex to mitigate, as it impairs an individual’s holistic functioning. More often than not, an individual suffering from acute distress lacks the capacity to address the stressors in their lives. Therefore, they often develop unfavorable habits such as absenteeism using illness as an excuse, isolating themselves from the friends and family and increased disinterest in their favorite activities. On an individual level, one could prevent the onset of severe stress by incorporating healthy behaviors into their lifestyles. Studies on coping with stress infer that physical exercise plays a pivotal role in helping reduce stress. As discussed earlier, stress occurs both at a psychological and physiological level. Neurotransmitters in the brain send stress signals, which are in turn interpreted as a major or minor cause of stress. Physical exercise helps to increase the body’s resilience, as it enhances communication between physiological systems such as the cardiovascular and circulatory systems. In addition, physical exercise regulates the release of norepinephrine, which is the main neurotransmitter that controls the actions of other neurotransmitters associated with stress response. Organizations can provide social support to their employees; for example, they can sanction the creation of a welfare committee that handles employees’ issues such as bereavement. Holden et al. (2011) infers that employees represent organization’s largest resource; therefore, employers should endeavor to make the workplace a favorable place to work (Donovan et al., 2013). Severe stress might sometimes cause the development of psychological disorders. As discussed, depression represents the most common aftermath of severe stress. At this point, an individual ought to seek the professional opinion of a mental health practitioner. Treatment of the depression hinges on the practitioner’s diagnosis whereby, a diagnosis that indicates mild depression warrants psychotherapeutic intervention only. However, if the practitioner diagnoses the individual with Major Depressive Disorders, which is severe depression, then the patient requires both psychopharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions. Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) represent the most common type of anti-depressants used to treat severe depression. Conversely, Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) is most often used on a one-on-one basis to treat depression or dysthymia (a more persistent but less severe form of depression). The current manual- based form of IPT used today was developed in the 1980s by Gerald Klerman, M.D., and Myrna Weismann, M.D. This is a time-limited treatment for major depression that addresses the connection between interpersonal problems and mood. IPT varies depending on the needs of the patient and the relationship between the therapist and patient. The therapist using IPT helps the patient identify troubling emotions and their triggers. The therapist helps the patient learn to express appropriate emotions in a healthy way. The patient may also examine relationships in his or her past that may have been affected by distorted mood and behavior. Doing so can help the patient learn to be more objective about current relationships. The premise of IPT is that treating depression results from improving communication patterns and the ways people relate to each other. The interpersonal problem areas focused on include role transition, grief, interpersonal deficits, and role dispute. In the workplace setting, the organization’s counselor is more than equipped to handle stress-related issues. However, they can refer when the employee’s problems exceed their area of competence. It is important for top-management to provide mental healthcare services free, which encourages employees to seek help when faced with stress-related problems, such as bereavement. Conclusion Stress is inevitable for all humans; therefore, mitigating the undesirable outcomes of stress requires developing adequate coping mechanisms. In addition, stress is subjective whereby perception influences an individual’s comprehension of stressors and the possible ways of mitigating them. Internal and external factors influence perception of stress among individuals whereby, individuals with an external locus of control attribute stress to situational factors whereas those with an internal locus of control attribute stress to dispositional factors. The implementation of interventional strategies depends on the type of intervention, intended goals of the stressed individual and their unique traits. Finally, assessing the success of interventions encompasses re-administration of assessment tools used at the onset of diagnosing stress disorder in an individual. Works Cited Block, J. P., He, Y., Zaslavsky, A. M., Ding, L., & Ayanian, J. Z. (2009). Psychosocial Stress and Change in Weight among US Adults. American Journal of Epidemiology, 170(2): 181-192. Demir, A. (2003). Investigation of factors influencing burnout levels in the professional and private lives of nurses. International Journal of Nurs Studies, 40:807–27. Donovan, R. O., Doody, O., & Lyons, R. (2013). 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