Chest Infection, Chronic Inflammation, and Atheroma Formation - Assignment Example

Clinical Chest infection Haematological Refers to issues that are associated with the blood and the blood forming tissues. The haematological system is made of the blood and the bone marrow. What is leukaemia (neutrophils?) Leukaemia can be defined as the cancer of the bone marrow or cancer of the blood. Neutrophils are the dominant white blood cells. Their main function in the body is to act as immune response to any disease causing microorganisms because they are phagocytes in nature. What changes will occur if you have leukaemia The bone marrow starts producing abnormal white blood cells in larger volumes. This causes the red blood cells to carry less oxygen because of a reduction in haemoglobin. This causes paleness and weakness hence causing anaemia. The abnormal white blood cells also become ineffective in their mandate as immune response cells hence the body becomes susceptible to frequent attacks from disease causing microorganisms. What things cause you to develop leukaemia There are no direct causes of leukamea, only high risk factors. These high risk factors include human transmission through viruses such as the human T-Lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1), maternal fetal transmission and genetically through Down syndrome. Other risk factors include exposure to intense radiation, exposure to chemicals such as benzene and through some chemotherapy agents. Leukaemia mutation 2. Chronic inflammation Acute inflammation is a normal response triggered by the immune system when reacting to intrusion of pathogens or physical injuries. Chronic inflammation is the persistence of the response mechanisms hence the inability of the affected tissues to overcome the effects of the causative agent. Characteristics of inflammation They include swollen glands (tumor), redness of specific parts affected (rubor), pain (dolor), increased temperature on the affected parts (calor) and functio laesea. What happens within the cells (cellular level and physically) As the pathogens enter the body, the tiny blood vessels become dilated to increase the flow of blood. Proteins then become highly permeable in the vascules and fluids move into the tissues to cause swelling. Neutrophilis and monocytes (white blood cells) move into the tissues from the blood vessels. The pathogens are then engulfed and destroyed by the neutrophilis and monocytes as the tissues begin to be repaired. Stages of healing (remodelling, scar tissue formation) Proliferation phase- Starts 2-3 days after injury and inflammation and is the production of type III collagen (scar tissue). The two basic processes occurring in this stage are fibroplasias and angiogenesis which are collage formation and new blood vessels formation respectively. Proliferation phase – The type III collagen matures and becomes type I collagen which is more strong and fibrous. What cell changes take place within the body? The body is made up of several tissues which are basically a combination of living cells. Several changes occur to these cell and they include. Shrinking (Atrophy), enlarging (Hypertrophy), multiplication (Hyperplasia), deformation (Dysplasia) and swelling (Neoplasia). Cigarette smoking Chemicals found in cigarettes are said to interfere with the healing of wounds whether ingested actively or passively. It has been found that the tobacco smoke increase the healing time of wounds since it interferes with the function of the fibroplastin. Definition of cell adaptation These are the changes that a cell goes through when the cell is exposed to a different environments from the one that it is used to and the changes can be either physiological (Normal) or pathological (Abnormal). They can be identified through scanning or physical observation for example on the skin. 3. Atheroma formation How is formed in cells Macrophage cells that are lipids in nature together with calcium accumulate at the inner wall of the artery to form a lump that reduces blood flow. What leads to plaque formation? Atherosclerosis. This is when the arteries become hardened by the presence of too much cholesterol and white blood cells move in to try and digest the cholesterol and they build up over a long period. How does blood contribute to plaque formation Blood is the carrier of the cholesterol hence it brings it to any damaged endothelium. The disturbance to blood flow is caused by the narrowing artery because of the growing atheroma. All stages of Atheroma development Endothelial dysfunction. Bad cholesterol circulating in the blood gets attached to the damaged endothelium. White blood cells move in to digest the bad cholesterol and their increase and the increase of waste cholesterol over time cause the development of plaque. Diagram of Atheroma Factors involved in Atheroma Blood vessels, blood, cholesterol levels and cardiac function. The formation of atheroma in the inner linings of the arteries might lead to blockage of blood from reaching other side of the lump causing morbidity or rupture of the blood vessel hence causing myocardial infarction. How to diagnose myocardial infection Assess patient history; look at extremely high or low blood pressure or an irregular pulse and by using the electrocardiogram. 4. Differences between Benign and Malignant Box for B/M Benign tumours are not cancerous cells while malignant tumours are cancerous cells. List differences Benign Can be removed Rarely spread to other body parts Do not reoccur after removal Malignant Can attack other tissues in the body They metastasize What are example of benign and malignancy Benign: - Nevi and leiomyomas (uterine fibroids) Malignant: - Melanoma Metastasis is the spread of cancer infected cells from one tissue to another tissue in the organ. This is normally carried out in through the lymphatic system or through the blood and during the migration, the cells develop a front part and a rear to steer the cells. A more developed immune system can attack the new cells that have migrated, stopping them from developing. This process is known as transplant rejection. This attack can either be on intended transplants or unintended transplants so it has to be managed if the transplant was intended. 5. Neoplasia-- new growth What is health disease? The effect of a pathogen in a living organ, altering the normal functionality of the organ. This effect normally has its unique signs and symptoms. Differences between now & then how we look at diseases Diseases are nowadays diagnosed and the biological causes determined hence appropriate treatment is prescribed. In the previous years, diseases were considered supernatural affairs and some could even cause disgrace to families hence the sufferers could even be banished. Stigma-what is it what is considered as stigma examples This is when a society perceives a certain condition with disgrace and discrimination. An example is the way people living with cancer, mental illness or HIV are considered infectious from contact. Blemish in individuals They can be defined as developed character traits of individuals who have been stigmatised for example strong will and domineering. 6. Clinical trials (research) Drugs Substances that when introduced into the body they cause a change in the physiological operation. Clinical trials are performed on drugs so as to evaluate the side effects and effects of the drug before allowing its distribution to the masses hence ensuring that they are safe to use. How to do clinical trials Clinical trials/intravenous trials must have a purpose and a period. There should be administrative oversights to ensure that the procedures are noted and every effect documented. Factors to consider before carrying out a clinical trial include the cost, availability of willing patients for trials, availability of control measures among other factors like location. Stages of clinical trials Preclinical trial on non-humans, phase 0 to determine the drugs half-life, phase1 to test the drugs dosage range, phase 2 to test the drug’s efficacy. Phase 3 assesses the drug’s safety, as phase 4 watches the drug’s use in the public and its long term effects. The final phase of testing accumulates the data collected in the research and the drug is now categorised. How do drugs act on body? Full agonists are drugs that bind with brain receptors to trigger production of endorphins which give pain relief to the body. They are highly addictive because of the euphoria they trigger and an increase in dosage causes increase in endorphine secretion. Examples include morphine, oxycodone and heroine. Partial agonists bind with the brain receptor cells to low levels of endorphins. An increase in dosage of these drugs causes little increase in the production of endorphins. Examples include Subutex and Buprenorphine. Antagonist drugs are however protect the receptor cell from contacting chemicals that might trigger endorphine. Just like partial agonists, they can be used to cause withdrawal from full agonists. 7. Endocrine system What happens when hormones go wrong? Hormones are basically stimulators and when they go wrong several processes and conversion can be affected. They include diabetes, fatigue, and lack of sleep, irregular appetites, low libido, and nervousness among others. Particularly thyroid gland The thyroid glands are found in the neck and the thyroid hormones are responsible for metabolism. Low levels of thyroid hormone (hypothyroidism) can cause low metabolism hence body temperature lowers and weight increases. According to Rakel (2007), it also causes hardening of hair and nails. High levels of thyroid hormones (hyperthyroidism) increase metabolism hence weight loss, protruding eyes and the frequent mood changes. What happens chemically in the body when thyroid malfunctions? The conversion of thyroxin (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) is not successful within the receptor cells. How is recognised physically & tests Swollen thyroid glands, insomnia, dry skin, nervousness and indecisiveness, mood swings, muscle weakness fatigue menstrual cycle imbalance. Thyroid disorders are autoimmune diseases .Graves disease and hashimoto thyroiditis are examples of autoimmune diseases. In Graves’ disease, the antibodies form against T-receptor cells. This causes hyperthyroidism hence a high production of T3 and T4 which cause swelling of glands or goitre while the pale skin is caused by inflammation of antibodies under the skin. 8. Drug toxicity Paracetamol & aspirin The excessive use of aspirin or paracetamol causes an overdose which increases the toxicity of the drugs in the body causing damage to the liver and pulmonary edema respectively. Paracetamol uses a Rumack-Mathew nomogram to determine concentration level in the body while aspirin can be diagnosed by spectrophotometric analysis. For aspirin, the level of toxicity is moderate when the concentration is between 150-300 mg/kg and it is severe when it is between 300-500 mg/kg. For paracetamol, 200mg/kg can be considered as an acute toxicity for adults. Treatment of paracetamol toxicity is more effective through gastric decontamination accompanied with the use of anti-oxidants. Treatment of aspirin toxicity is however through the use of intravenous fluids, alkalization through use of sodium bicarbonate and the use of dialysis. 9. Neurological disorders What is coma? A state of being unconscious for more than five hours and cannot respond to the environmental stimuli. How is coma identified Based on two Scales known Glasgow coma scale and Rancho Los Amigos Scale. The patient is evaluated for the state using four awareness types. Comatose but nonresponsive: - Does not react to stimuli and cannot move Comatose but responsive: - Reacts to stimuli with increased heart rate or slight movement. Conscious but nonresponsive: - Is fully aware of the environment but does not react to stimuli Conscious and responsive: - Out of the comatose. What events cause to lose consciousness examples? Injuries sustained to the brain, lack of sufficient oxygen in the brain or build of toxicity level in the brain. Describe pathologically in the body what goes wrong that causes to lose consciousness The major cause of unconsciousness in the body is damage caused on the Reticular Activating System (RAS). This mostly done by swelling of the brain which pushes it down the brainstem. The RAS is the part of the brain responsible for alertness and arousal. Head injuries bleed in head Serious head injuries that may cause bleeding inside the head increase the pressure in the skull causing the brain to be pushed down the brainstem hence damaging the RAS. 10. Infectious diseases What is a Chest Infection? This is a type of bacterial infection that affects the lungs either in the small air sacs (pneumonia) or in the larger air paths (bronchitis) causing a build-up of mucus in the air paths resulting to a difficulty in breathing. Chain of infection for chest infection Infectious agent: - Bacteria Reservoir: - Contaminated surfaces such as door knobs. Portal of exit: - Mouth Mode of transmission: - Direct contact Portal entry: - Mouth Susceptible host: - Those exposed to cold conditions, Smokers and Alcoholics. Stages of infections Congestion, red hepatisation, grey hepatisation, resolution. What does transmission mean examples of transmission? The passage of bacteria from an infected person (host) to an uninfected person. Examples include sexual transmission, insect bites, direct contact, and airborne transmission. Reference Rakel, D. (2007). Integrative medicine. Edinburgh, Elsevier Saunders. Read More