Aetiology of Criminal Violent Behaviour - Literature review Example

Aetiology of Criminal Violent Behaviour - Genetics and Environmental Influences The following is a review of literature studying the aetiology of criminal violent behaviour, and the genetic and environmental factors that pertain to it. Violent behaviour has been found to contain its roots in the biological as well as psychiatric make up of individuals.(Fazel et al, 2006, pp 1397) Alongside, the recent researches acknowledge the large role played by genetics and the environmental influences that come into play during a person’s life time. It is with this idea in mind that medical as well law personnel and police are trying to create ways in identifying people with criminal tendencies. This is no easy task, but it is hoped that early stage detection is possible, and an individual can be treated accordingly to prevent them turning into criminals. Violence has been defined as “an intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.” (WHO, 1996, np) Now genetic and environmental influences are considered as keys to medical evaluation of the criminal mind. Much research has been carried out in both these areas, and supporting evidence exists. With time and more understanding, we may be able to handle violent behaviour at early stages before any damage is done. (Alper, 1995, pp 272) PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH: The purpose of the research is to establish the genetic link that is present in individuals displaying criminal behaviour. While medical texts and researches support the genetic influence of criminal tendencies, such proof are less well accepted in legal and societal contexts. This may make the acquisition of psychiatric care very difficult for such individuals, leaving these cases untreated and for further deterioration. The aim of this paper is to increase awareness of the important role that genetics play in the criminal and violent behaviour, and how various genetic technologies can help in identifying such tendencies at early stages. With the lack of proper awareness and education in the law systems, these patients may be wrongly charged and arrested, while not focusing on the methods to treat the condition. Similarly, many cases may be left unidentified of criminal tendencies and violent behaviours, which can lead to negative consequences for those in the immediate vicinity of the person. SUMMARY Many genetic influences have been found to be responsible for violent behaviour. However, the lack of conclusive evidence still makes it difficult to detect which genes are specifically involved in causing violent behaviour. One of the most debated genes is the monoamine oxidase A gene, which is claimed to display violent characteristics should it become defected. The research in this area is still unclear, however, the role of genetics in identifying these behaviours in no longer a wishful fantasy. It is happening. The current researches are already changing concepts about violence, its definition, its causes, and internal and external influences that dictate it. (Moosaji, 2003, pp. 211) Behaviour is not a feature that is inherited as other factors such as eye colour etc. In these particular cases, the factor of liability and the risk associated with it increase the possibility of creation of violent or aggressive behaviour. The liability scale is one of good gauges to measure the probability of aggressive or violent behaviour. Again this liability is based on factors such as genes and parenting, schooling, peers and environment etc. (CBASSE, 1994, pp. 23) Malnutrition is also another contributing factor in causing antisocial behaviour, violence and aggression in children. Food additives, hypoglycaemia and cholesterol have been recently implicated in causing variations in the personality type and behaviour. Malnutrition at 3 years of age can lead to external behaviour problems at ages 8, 11 and 17. The cognitive ability is decreased, with malnutrition causing lowered IQ levels in children, in a dose response relationship. Thus a role of nutritional imbalances and malnutrition must not be excluded from the causes of aggressive behaviour. (Liu et al, 2004, pp. 2007 and 2010) Study conducted by Langbehn et al (1998) has stated that environmental factors show strong component in childhood disruptive behavioural disorders, adult sociopathy in parents and similar presentations in the offspring. (Langbehn et al, 1998, pp. 822) AIMS The aims of the literature review are as follows: To identify violent behaviour as a multifactorial condition To understand the role of genetics in aggressive and violent behaviour To understand the role of environmental factors in aggressive violent behaviour To discuss how these factors come into play The role of other factors such as gender, neurotransmittors, physical defects and trauma and others in the causing of violent behaviours. OBJECTIVES Based on these aims, the objective is to review authentic scientific literature including studies and researches that outline the role of various factors in the aetiology of the violent and aggressive behaviour. The objective is to introduce the genetic and environmental component in violence as one of the main contributing factors by proof and studies of various studies and researches. Based on this literature, the role of advancements in genetics and community and social sciences in controlling and identifying early signs of aggression can be assessed. Future policies and treatment plans can be made that specifically address methods to identify and treat violence and aggression among populations and thereby prevent such incidences. Since violent crimes are largely prevalent around the parts of the globe (excluding war), efforts and policies must be able to reduce these incidences and help in protecting the victims. THEORY Violence in the past has been a culture of civilizations and was considered necessary for the survival of the people. The need for violence in these cultures came out as a necessity for defence and protection. However, such a situation is somewhat rare in today’s societies, unless it is a situation where a person has to defend himself. Even this is considered as a self defence tactic and not violence. Violence on the other hand is now defined as the aggressive behaviour that is not normal to the stimuli provided by the environment. While self defence was a tactic adapted by a normal person in trouble, violence is the display of aggressive behaviour that is unprovoked and unneeded. (Moosaji, 2003, pp. 211) This means that while in the past, having a violence component in the genetic makeup was a positive trait, in the modern culture it has become a negative one, as explains the thrifty gene hypothesis. (Moosaji, 2003, pp. 212) The genetic basis of the human behaviour is mainly studied by categorizing it in three areas; genetic variance, common environmental variance and unique environmental variance. Difference between the later two lies in factors that lead to sibling similarity and those factors that lead to sibling differences. Two factors contribute to these similarities as well as differences. These include genetic variance and vertical environmental transmission. These in turn are further classified further. (CBASSE, 1994, pp 23) Although of a heterozygous origin, violence has been mainly characterized into two forms. These include impulsive violence or pre-medicated violence. For many criminals, the violent act is self proclaimed as impulsive in nature. Support to this theory was seen when studies showed a decrease in impulsive violent behaviour following administration of phenytoin. The role of varying glucose metabolism in the brain is also considered as contributory to violent nature. Again, this violent behaviour can be either predatory or pathological in nature.(Volavka, 1999, pp. 308) While mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and mood disorders are also known to be causes of violent behaviour, these constitute a minority of the criminals, showing that a strong environmental factor is also involved. Similarly, injuries to the brain in the area of frontal ventromedial areas and temporal areas are also considered as causes of development of violent behaviour. (Volavka, 1999, pp. 309) Alcoholism has been shown to increase violent and aggressive behaviour in individuals. This trait also shows a strong genetic tendency. While previously considered as a social problem only, it is now established that genetic influences play a major role in causing alcoholism. Susceptablity genes have been identified, but the exact outcome of each individual gene still remains to be seen. (Dick et al, 2006, pp. 224)Alcoholism resembles aggressive and violence behaviour due to its heterozygotic aetiology, and it is not unusual to see aggressive behaviour in such individuals. The co-occurrence of various disorders increases the susceptibility to extreme behaviour problems, and raises the question of similar genetic overlaps in the causation of psychological diseases.(Dick et al, 2006, pp. 226) Dompamine in this regard has gained significant attention, as association with dopamine receptor DRD2 and alcoholism has been verified. Alcoholism also displays the same role of environment as in the progression of aggression and violent personalities, indicating a deeper connection between the genes causing both disorders. (Dick et al, 2006, pp. 227) A role of neurotransmitters and their concentrations and metabolisms are among the contributors to the violent behaviour. Decrease in the activity of serotonin has shown inhibition of impulsive aggressive behaviour. In this regard the role of tryptophan hydroxylase gene or TPH genes has been identified. This gene controls the activity and the synthesis of serotonin in the body and therefore is one of the major determinants of aggressive or violent behaviours. TPH genotype polymorphisms have shown high incidence of violent and aggressive behaviour in males with personality disorders. Volavka, 1999, pp. 311). This gene has also shown an increased tendency for suicide. In correlation with alcoholism, this gene can increase the intensity of the suicidal and violent aggressive behaviour.(Volavka, 1999, pp. 312). Other genes associated with serotonin include serotonin transporter genes SLC6A4, SERT, and 5HTT. Serotonin gene defects have also been associated with obsessive compulsive disorders and severe depression. (Murphy et al, 2004, pp 113) Violence and aggression has also been shown to be found due to norepinephrine secretion. With increasing nor-adrenergic activity, the aggressive behaviour also increases. This role has been demonstrated with the help of beta- adrenergic blocking agents, which are used to control and suppress violent behaviour in a majority of neuropsychiatric patients. (Volavka, 1999, pp. 312) The main concern however, is the issue that there are very few genes that have been identified as positively associated with violent and aggressive behaviour. Many reasons lie behind this, which include the small sample sizes, trying to identify monogenetic causes while ignoring polygenetic causes of aggression, and the limited advancements in the gene technologies until recently. However, newer researches are now aiming to include subjects and samples which include schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, autism, major depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, alcoholism and nicotine and other drug dependence. (Dick et al, 2006, pp. 223) In young people, the aetiology of psychopathy has been linked to family variables, which include parental rejection, inconsistent discipline, abuse etc. which lead to conduct disorders and psycopathy. The somatic marker hypothesis claims the role of prefrontal cortex in the development of psychopathic inclinations. The damage to the ventromedial cortex can lead to inability to differentiate between good and bad, consequently leading to behaviour disorders. Any disfunction in the amygdale is also seen as cause of psychopathic behaviour among individuals. The presentation among the adolescents may not be so different than seen in the adults. Both can show the same behaviours in aggression, such as conduct problems, antisocial behaviour and delinquency. The presentation of a psychopathic behaviour can be therefore seen in early ages which progress to adulthood. (Dolan, 2004, pp 466 and 467) Studies of schizophrenic patients have shown a higher than normal risk of developing violent behaviour and committing suicide in such patients. This particular group constitutes a very heterozygous population, and the antisocial behaviour history is found at an early age, which persists till adult hood. (Raine et al, 2003, pp. 1629) In such cases, the violent incidences have different meanings and definitions. Violence in such cases can also be defined as an incident by the staff engaged in caring for the patient. Such patients have shown genetic prenatal factors and environmental factors operating at very young stages of life. There is definitive history of substance abuse, medication, and comorbid disturbances in behaviour. The soft signs also clearly indicate the potential for violent behaviour, as well as history of intensive stress during adolescence. (Naudts and Hodgins, 2006, pp 563, 564, and 570) METHODS AND ETHICS: The review of literature was carried out over a period of two weeks. Week one was involved in accumulating data and references, and gaining access to various library and internet resources about the subject matter. The internet was the primary source of literature, and the main sites of search included google, yahoo, altavista search engines. Many of the articles generated were found in all of the research engines. These articles were then studied for the presence of full content. Abstracts were not included in the research articles. The articles were located in the medical journals and books, but also included were social and psychology related journals. The search entries included were many, and included, violent behaviour, aggressive behaviour, genetic influence on violent behaviour, environmental influence on violent behaviour, neurological patterns in aggressive and violent psychology, the basis of violent psychology, genetic and environment in aggressive behaviour. A large list of articles and researches were displayed. The articles were selected based on their authenticity, the source and journal of publication, the citations of the article itself and the quality of the citations and references included within the article. These were then studied over a period of seven days. The relevant articles were included based on the relevance to the topic of research, others were discarded. These were then studied thoroughly and then selected for the final review of literature. The writing of the review then was carried out on the span of the next seven days, where constant revision was carried out. TIME DURATION FOR THE STUDY WEEK ONE: WEEK ONE: PHASE ONE. COLLECTION OF DATA Accumulating data and references, getting internet access to relevant material, journals and articles. Internet search engines used, google, alta vista, yahoo. TIME DURATION OF PHASE ONE: 48 hours total in gaining access, searching the internet, gaining access to internet libraries and search engines. PHASE TWO: SELECTION OF THE ARTICLES. The selection was carried out based on the full content and the authenticity of the journal or the publishing source. TIME DURATION OF PHASE TWO: 36 hours total in verifying the authenticity and obtaining full content. PHASE THREE: ORGANIZING MATERIAL. Material was organized and stored according to the date of publication, the source of printing, and the relevance to the topic matter. 24 Hours. PHASE FOUR: SECOND TIME SEARCHING FOR REMOTE YET SIGNIFICANT RESERARCHES RELATED TO THE AREA OF INTEREST All the three phases mentioned above were followed. A total of five articles were thought relevant and contributory, and after attaining full text, were included in the references to be used in the study. WEEK TWO: REVIEW OF ARTICLES PHASE ONE: TIME DURATION 48 HOURS Reorganization of the articles and sequencing them for reading. PHASE TWO: TIME DURATION 5 DAYS The articles were read. The significant articles that matched the need for the article composition and research were included and the remaining were excluded from the references. PHASE THREE: TIME DURATION 24 HOURS Final revision of the articles and rechecking of the reference list for authentication or the publishing source. WEEK THREE: WRITING OF THE REVIEW AND REVISION INITIAL WRITE UP OF THE REVIEW. TIME DURATION: 48 HOURS The articles were included one by one by the order of preference set in week two. These articles were then used as needed for the review making REVISION ONE: TIME DURATION 24 HOURS Removal of spelling mistakes, grammatical mistakes. Revision and inclusion of new articles. REVISION TWO: TIME DURATION 48 HOURS Addition of new material and revision of the article. Inclusion of reference list and planning of the format of the article. FINAL DRAFT: TIME DURATION 48 HOURS The final checking and rewriting of the article. Introduction of the references and the correct referencing style, and formatting. Final reading and confirmation of the review. CONCLUSIONS: There is a very strong linkage between the genetic influence in behaviour of personality and corresponding psychiatric illnesses. Cases of schrizophrenia and family history of violent and aggressive behaviour show high chances of similar behaviour in offspring. However, not every person with violent or aggressive behaviour will have violent or aggressive children. This is because environmental factors and nidus are necessary in order to create an aggressive personality. By understanding the family predisposition, there are chances that violent and aggressive behaviour in early stages among individuals can be recognised and treated accordingly. Also playing role in such behaviours are various pathological defects in metabolism of certain substances including neurosecretions. There is therefore increasing evidence that genetic and environmental factors play a main contributory role in violent and aggressive personality types. WRITERS CITED Joseph S Alper, 1995. Biological Influences on Criminal Behaviour: How Good is the Evidence? BMJ 1995: 310: 272-273 CBASSE, 1994. Understanding and Preventing Violence, Volume 2:Biobehavioral Influences. Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Danielle M. Dick, Richard J Rose, and Jaakko Kaprio, 2006. The Next Challenge for Psychiatric Genetics: Characterizing the Risk Associated with Identified Genes. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 2006; 18(4): 223-231 Maireed Dolan, 2004. Psychopathic Personality in Young People. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 10: 466-473 Seena Fazel and Martin Grann, 2006. the Population Impact of Severe Mental Illness on Violent Crime. The American Journal of Psychiatary 163: 1397-1403. Douglas R. Langbehn, Remi J Cadoret, William R Yates, Edward P Troughton and Mark A Stewart, 1998. Distinct Contributions of Conduct and Oppositional Defiant Symptoms to Adult Antisocial Behaviour. Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 55, No. 9. Jianghong Liu, Adriane Raine, Peter H Venables and Sarnoff A Mednick, 2004. the American Journal of Psychiatry 161: 2005-2013. Mariya Moosaji, 2003. Violence_ A Noxious Cocktail of Genes and the Environment. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 2003; 96: 211-214 Dennis L. Murphy, Alicja Lerner, Gary Rundnick and Claus Peter Lesch, 2004. Serotonin Transporter: Gene, Genetic Disorders and Pharmacogenetics. American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. Journal of Molecular Interactions, 4:109-123, (2004) Kris Naudts and Sheilagh Hodgins, 2006 32(3): 562-572. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2006, Oxford Journals. Adriane Raine, D. Phil, Kjetil Mellingen, Jianghong Liu, Peter Venables and Sarnoff A, 2003. Effects of Environmental Enrichment at Ages 3-5 Years on Schizotypal Personality and Antisocial Behaviour at Ages 17 and 23 Years. The American Journal of Psychiatry 160:1627-1635. Jan Volavka, 1999. The Neurobiology of Violence. The Journal of Neuropsychiatary and Clinical Neurosciences 11: 307-314. WHO global consultation on violence and health. Violence: a Pubic Health Priority. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1996 Read More