Childhood Obesity in the USA - Literature review Example

Childhood Obesity: Literature Review Childhood Obesity: Literature Review Introduction Childhood obesity is a serious health concern in developed countries. In the United States, where it is a looming epidemic, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and individuals are working towards developing better preventive and palliative strategies for managing the situation. Current research on childhood obesity revolves around understanding the causes and mechanism of the condition, as well as sustainable preventive measures (Rippe, 2013). This literature review is aimed at elucidating current research on childhood obesity and evaluating specific dimensions of this phenomenon. Body The Mechanism of Childhood Obesity The development pattern of childhood obesity is similar to obesity in adults. In the past, questions have been raised over whether childhood obesity differs from obesity in adulthood. Research has shown that the definitive attributes of obesity are constant in all age groups. As children grow, fat cells multiply and when calorie intake outweighs expenditure, the number of fat cells increases. According to Farley & Dowell’s 2014 investigation, in the event that fat cells have attained their maximum size but calorie intake still outweighs expenditure, they (fat cells) continue expanding rapidly, leading to accumulation of fat in the body. This is what differentiates overweight children from obese children, although the two conditions are often confused. Fat loss results in a decrease in the size – not number – of the fat cells. Findings of a research conducted by Green (2013), show that there is a positive correlation between heightened levels of the hormone leptin and obesity. In research settings, leptin is commonly referred to as the “fat hormone,” the “obesity hormone,” or the “starvation hormone.” An increase or decrease in the amount of leptin secreted can affect calorie intake, calorie expenditure, and energy balance. For example, findings of a study conducted by Dawes (2014) reveal that obese children have higher blood leptin levels compared to those with normal weight because they have higher percentage body fat. Voigt, Nicholls & Williams (2014) conducted a study whose results suggested that obese children also exhibit resistance to the hormone in the same manner as type 2 diabetics show resistance to insulin. Their elevated levels of leptin mean that they cannot control hunger or their weight. On the other hand, obese children who lose weight experience a decline in blood leptin levels, leading to temporary declines in sympathetic tone, calorie expenditures in skeletal tissues, and thyroid metabolism, as well as elevations in parasympathetic tone and muscle efficiency (Ahima, 2013). Causes of Childhood Obesity It is generally accepted that there are three primary causes of childhood obesity and obesity in general: genetic dispositions, inactivity, and overeating. However, it is also widely acknowledged that obesity results from a combination of the three conditions. For example, overeating alone cannot cause childhood obesity unless it is combined with inactivity, and vice-versa. In the same breadth, genetic predispositions are unlikely to cause childhood obesity unless they are exacerbated by overeating. Bray (2014) argued that thus far, there are no findings that have shown that the existence of one of the three factors causes childhood obesity. It is, however, intriguing that these factors coexist more than expected. Children who overeat also tend to be inactive, making them highly vulnerable to obesity. Of the three risk factors, genetics is the least likely cause of childhood obesity. In fact, only around 1 percent of childhood obesity cases can be directly attributed to genetic patterns (Rippe, 2013). Most of these are caused by genetic mutations that result in abnormal secretion of growth or weight-related hormones. Overeating is the most common cause of childhood obesity since it creates an imbalance between calorie intake and expenditure. Lifestyle changes have resulted in an increase in the amount of unhealthy foods available to children. For example, feeding programs in many schools have now shifted from healthy cooked meals to fast-food, leaving many learners with no option but to overeat to satisfy their cravings (Jackson, 2013). These habits are extended to family settings, where children are now more exposed to fast-food and precooked meals that compel them to eat more frequently rather than have proper meals at the right times. Fatty and sugary diets consisting of cakes, burgers, sodas and energy drinks, chocolates, and French fries are now easily accessible to children, who cannot control their desire for such types of foods (Ahima, 2013). Consequently, some children end up spending their lunch money on fast-food that they consume in large quantities. Currently, for every meal 30 percent of American children consume, there is a high likelihood that it consists of fast-food or has 200 more calories than a healthy meal. Ultimately, these children gain up to 6 pounds of fat annually, resulting in childhood obesity. The last factor, inactivity, is mainly concerned with limited exercise (Green, 2013). It is primarily a consequence of disinclination towards physical education in households and schools. Ideally, all children should be active, but sometimes they need their parents’ support to participate in exercises that help them to burn calories. However, lifestyle changes and the fast-paced nature of modern society have limited children’s access to their parents, leading them to choose to be inactive. Children also have greater access to gadgets and devices (e.g., TVs and video games) that they limit physical activity, especially when they receive limited attention from their guardians or parents (Dawes, 2014). Diagnosing Childhood Obesity Body mass index (BMI) is the standard tool for determining whether children or adults are obese. If a child’s BMI exceeds 30, then they can be classified as obese (Dawes, 2014). Effects of Childhood Obesity Previously, the effects of childhood obesity were viewed in terms of long-term social and health impacts. However, scientific developments, in conjunction with a greater need to acquire a wider perspective of childhood obesity, have led to a more holistic approach to its effects. Currently, the impacts of childhood obesity include economic costs that, in the United States, amount to billions of dollars each year. Worryingly, as the rates of childhood obesity increase, it is expected that the economic costs will also increase proportionally (Ahima, 2013). The United States government spends a significant percentage of its health budget in fighting childhood obesity, yet these funds could be channeled to other important areas. The health and social implications of childhood obesity are grave. Opportunistic diseases like type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, asthma, heart diseases, and cancer are just some of the consequences of childhood obesity (Bray, 2014). Socially, obese children usually have low self-esteem, leading to poor social skills, poor academic performance, and an affinity for vices (e.g., drug abuse) as a solution to being maligned socially. Children who find themselves in such situations can also develop depression and other mental illnesses. Management and Prevention of Childhood Obesity The best way to manage and prevent childhood obesity is to unite all stakeholders in assisting children in making better decisions regarding their health and the effects of being obese. It is time that children were educated on their responsibility for their health and the measures they can take to prevent obesity (Rippe, 2013). A holistic approach that brings together grassroots, mainstream, and government-level actors can significantly reduce the rates of childhood obesity in the long term. The grassroots level may consist of households (parents, community members, community-based organizations, etc.), the mainstream level may encompass non-governmental organizations, schools, and businesses (e.g., fast-food vendors), and the government-level may harness the resources and abilities of federal agencies (Bray, 2014). Conclusion This review has evaluated and considered various studies and perspectives on childhood obesity. Information has been drawn from primary research sources in medicine, sociology, education, allied health, and public health. The general conclusion is that although the rates of childhood obesity are concerning, more can still be done to prevent it from becoming an epidemic. Based on this review, a bottom-up approach would be the best way to manage and prevent childhood obesity. References Ahima, R. (Ed.). (2013). Childhood obesity: prevalence, pathophysiology, and management. (Illustrated ed.). Hoboken: CRC Press. Bray, G. (2014). Handbook of obesity: epidemiology, etiology, and physiopathology (3rd ed.). Boca Raton: Routledge. Dawes, L. (2014). Childhood obesity in America: biography of an epidemic (Illustrated ed.). Boston: Harvard University Press. Farley, T., & Dowell, D. (2014). Preventing childhood obesity: what are we doing right? American Journal of Public Health, 104(9), 1579-1583. Green, L. (2013). Evaluating obesity prevention efforts: a plan for measuring progress. Basingstoke: National Academies Press. Jackson, C. (Ed.). (2013). Childhood obesity: causes, management and challenges. London: Nova Science. Rippe, J. (Ed.). (2013). Lifestyle medicine. Malden, Mass., USA: CRC Press. Voigt, K., Nicholls, S., & Williams, G. (2014). Childhood obesity: ethical and policy issues. New York: OUP USA. Read More