How Does Body Dissatisfaction in Men Lead to Eating Disorders Such as Anorexia - Literature review Example

Section/# Eating Disorders in Men Although it has typically been understood that eating disorders are primarily faced as a relevant physical and psychological concern for women, the preponderance of the research which has been conducted has not considered the potential impact and relevance that eating disorders, such as anorexia, have on men. Accordingly, the following literature review will be concentric upon for key sections. These respective sections will seek to answer the following questions:, the overall scope of eating disorders exhibited in the male population of the United Kingdom, whether or not age, sexual orientation, or social class have a part to play, whether or not body dissatisfaction in men contributes to health problems with alcohol and drugs which can in turn lead to eating disorders, and questioning whether the media has a role to play in this as well. Through seeking to answer each of these four sub questions, the literature review will seek to engage the reader with a further analysis and discussion of some of the relevant findings and existing research that has been published with respect to eating disorders within the male population. Although it is reasonable to assume that many of the contributions which have thus far been put forward and published will be helpful in seeking to understand the questions which have thus far been elaborated upon, the literature review will also be concentric upon providing counter arguments, critiques, and limitations of the articles that have been utilized. Accordingly, it is the hope of this particular analyst that the literature review will provide a more informed basis for an understanding of eating disorders within the male population and the means through which they are currently understood; as well as providing metrics for potential future research questions and gaining a further level of inference upon the situation as such. I: The Scope of the Issue in the United Kingdom According to research by Cohn & Lemberg (2014) over 2.1 million men within the United Kingdom suffer from one form of eating disorder or another. This figure comprises approximately 1.5% of the entire adult male population. Although this figure is necessarily small, at least as compared to women, it is nonetheless relevant and affects the life, psychological outlook, and happiness of hundreds of thousands of individuals within the United Kingdom. Perhaps more importantly, the research by Cohn & Lemberg (2014) indicates that the single greatest danger associated with the prevalence of eating disorders within the male population of the United Kingdom is contingent upon the fact that this particular population faces the added hardship of attempting to gain a level of understanding and recognition in an environment that believes that eating disorders are an issue that only women traditionally face. As has been briefly discussed previously, the overall impact of eating disorders is oftentimes ignored. Both society and many aspects of research focus upon the manner in which eating disorders among different populations impact upon certain aspects of psychological development. Whereas it is true that these impacts are definitive and oftentimes quite strong, a focus upon this only captures a brief aspect of how eating disorders within a given population have far-reaching impacts; not only upon the individual in question but also upon all those with whom they come in social contact. As with any disease/disorder, eating disorders create a situation in which the individuals overall sense of self worth and potential contributions to society are invariably shifted in a negative direction. Research by Norris et al. (2014) noted that the familial relations and potential work relationships that an individual mail that suffers with an eating disorder could hope to exhibit is extraordinarily limited as compared to the social engagements and family life that a male who does not suffer from an eating disorder could potentially exhibit. Further, in depth analysis with respect to a given population of men was conducted within the research provided by Norris et al. What was ultimately determined was that out of 148 men, 74 of which suffered an eating disorder and 74 did not, there was a measurable differential with respect to the overall self ranking of the quality of life and quality of social interactions that took place outside the family environment. Tangentially, the researchers noted that individuals who suffered from an eating disorder within the test group, were also 3 ½ times more likely to exhibit other psychological issues; such as depression. Although this particular piece of research is essential in helping to understand the differential that exists between those men who suffer from an eating disorder and those who do not, one particular That was evidenced within the research had to do with the fact that there was no clear indication of whether or not the depression that was referenced was a result of the eating disorder, whether or not this was controlled for, or whether or not the two findings had any correlation whatsoever. Although it is true that the scope of any particular piece of research is necessarily limited, the shortcomings that have thus far been analyzed serve to raise doubts and questions within the mind of the reader and concerns with respect to the overall applicability of the research which has thus far been discussed. However, regardless of the shortcomings, it must also be understood that the relative lack of scholarly research with respect to eating disorders within the male population encourages the analyst to not be too strident and the criticism that is level towards the existing articles that have thus far been put forward. Keeping with the theme of the scope of the problem of eating disorders in the male population of the United Kingdom, research by Anderson (2014) noted that there appeared to be a direct and measurable correlation between eating disorders within man and a drastically increased risk of suicide. Not surprisingly, the correlation which has already been put forward with respect to the previous pieces of research presented within this literature review, eating disorders and depression are oftentimes exhibited concurrently within an individual. By engaging with a sample of individuals that claims to have an eating disorder as well as a group of individuals that did not, the researchers quickly noted that the prevalence of suicidal thoughts within the group that exhibited an eating disorder was 10 times higher as compared to the group that did not. Although this particular statistic in and of itself does not create a firm level of correlation between suicidal thoughts and the prevalence of an eating disorder, is the understanding of this particular researcher that it belies a deeper trends; namely that those individuals who suffer from psychological trauma oftentimes utilized suicidal thoughts in tandem with an eating disorder as a means of seeking a way of escape. II: The Impact of Age, Sexual Orientation, and Social Class however, understanding the fact that eating disorders affect individuals within the United Kingdom, including males, and contribute to a litany of other tangentially related issues is not in and of itself sufficient with respect to understanding the overall impact that this particular issue has. Accordingly, seeking to understand the impacts of age, sexual orientation, and social class are also relevant research questions that must be engaged. As a function of this, perhaps one of the most seminal works with respect to the impact of age upon male eating disorders is a piece by Björk et al. (2014). Within this particular analysis, the researchers engage a rather large group of respondents and seek to track eating disorders as they appear within this population over a period of 15 years. Beginning in 1999, the research engaged with individuals as young as 14 and as old as 45. By tracking these individuals up until 2014, the research was able to infer whether or not a specific age group, or period of adolescence, contributed the greatest to the development of eating disorders. As the researchers expected, the highest rates of eating disorders were exhibited post puberty; within the mid-to late teens. However, from these results, the analyst is still left perplexed with regard to the overall applicability of the information. As the research merely reflected what was expected within a very large sample, the applicability for how this information should be applied to reducing overall rates of eating disorders or the best way of affecting a change in the behavior of “at risk” individuals within a specific demographic were not referenced at all. Further research will be required if these determinants can be extracted from the information and analysis that has thus far been conducted with respect to the determinism that age plays upon the prevalence/existence of an eating disorder. A further interesting component of the research has focused upon the relationship and potential correlation that exists between sexual orientation and the prevalence of an eating disorder within an individual. Whereas this literature review is neither the time nor the place to categorize which gender suffers the greatest from societal or familial aspersions that might be the result of their sexual orientation, it is safe to assume that the male gender faces a great deal more criticism with respect to homosexuality as compared to the female gender. Research by Greenberg & Schoen (2008) confirms that this differential is partially supported by existing analysis. Ultimately, the researchers were able to compile statistics that concerned response mechanisms to stress or rejection that was the result of homosexual activity or orientation. Surprisingly, the authors noted that from those homosexual male and female test subjects who were interviewed, a higher number of men reported that eating disorders could ultimately be traced back to the level of rejection that they received at the hands of their families, friends, or society at large. Although this study is only one out of thousands that has been conducted with respect to social or familial rejection based upon sexual orientation, it is useful due to the fact that it allows the reader to come to a level of understanding concerning the way in which individual response mechanisms to rejection invariably lead to certain types of destructive behaviour; in this case potential eating disorders. Furthermore, social class in and of itself is also a determinant that must be measured, analyze, and understood prior to the researcher being able to make a definitive statement or inquiry with respect to eating disorders within the male population. Research by Bunnell & Maine (2014) conducted an analysis which focused upon three distinct social classes and the way in which eating disorders among self-professed individuals could be linked to these different classes. As such, 300 participants were engaged and the study divided these based into low income, middle class, and upper-class. The results that were noted were somewhat surprising. Ultimately, of all the individuals that suffered from eating disorders, fully 60% categorized as “upper class”. The underlying reason for the disproportionately high level of individuals that had eating disorders be categorized as upper-class is contingent upon the fact that many times an individual whose material needs are met faces a situation in which the drive to survive falls secondary to the other needs that the individual might experience. For instance, of the individuals that were sampled within the study in question, a high percentage of these indicated that the underlying reason for suffering from an eating disorder was contingent upon the fact that either one or both of their parents did not express a degree of love or interest in their development. As such, even though the material needs were being met and their life was comfortable and successful by all other standards, the inherent lack that existed within another element of their life contributed greatly to this particular demographic experiencing the highest levels of eating disorders as compared to the middle and lower classes. III: The Role of Body Dissatisfaction: The role of life dissatisfaction is something that has come under a great deal of scrutiny and debate in recent years. Although there is a large amount of scholarly research with respect to the impact of body image and body dissatisfaction with regard to eating disorders in both men and women, it is the understanding of this author that the preponderance of this research is inherently flawed. The underlying reason for this has to do with the fact that many of these studies to answer the question of what came first – the chicken or the egg. In many cases, alcoholism or drug addiction can lead to a situation in which body dissatisfaction is evidenced and in turn leads to an eating disorder. In other cases, psychological, physical, or sexual abuse may be the motivating factor in what encourages an individual to develop an eating disorder. In yet other cases, the role and impact of media create a situation in which body dissatisfaction is represented to the individual and the impossibility of them attempting to live up to the standards encourages them to develop an eating disorder. As can be seen, a litany of different metrics encouraging individual and could have a definitive impact with respect to whether or not they develop an eating disorder at some point in their life. However, research by Weltzin et al. (2014) and many others notes the fact that seeking to develop a rigid framework for eating disorders and what contributes to them is ultimately not the best approach. With this being understood, a review and discussion of some of the salient forms of research which have been conducted concerning the body image and body dissatisfaction and its contribution to eating disorders should be engaged. The first of these, a study by Leonard (2004) denoted the fact that self-awareness and the degree and extent to which peers and family members reference, focus upon, or discuss body image as a profound impact upon the overall likelihood that an individual will develop an eating disorder within their youth. Although the results of the study are somewhat expected, it is nonetheless beneficial for the researcher/analyst to engage with it findings. The study alludes to the fact that social pressures and not individual causation are the most common factors that contribute to eating disorders within the male population. The greatest shortcoming with regard to this particular analysis and understanding of eating disorders is contingent upon the fact that many individuals that have been sample or analyzed are not fully aware of what contributing factors have encouraged them to engage with the destructive behaviour in question. IV: The Role of the Media Of all of the aspects and approaches that have thus far been analyzed within the literature review, the role of the media is perhaps the one aspect that has the greatest amount of literature existing with reference to eating disorders within the general population. One of the reasons behind this has to do with the fact that individuals have come to understand that media has a profound and measurable impact with regard to the activities and behaviors that are exhibited; specifically among adolescents. In extrapolating this particular societal understanding, the reader can aptly note that a high level of focus has been placed upon the role of violent media within the past several years as it relates to increases in violence and the means by which media is consumed by the general population. By much the same token, the sexualized nation of young women has been a primary focus for researchers that are interested in understanding human sexuality and the means by which gender norms are shifting at an alarming rate. However, alongside such an interpretation, the role of the media also plays a powerful mechanism in determining the overall level of self estimation, self worth, and body image. As a result of such an understanding, researchers such as Weltzin et al. (2014) have focused upon the degree and extent to which the media contributes to flawed interpretations of self worth and can ultimately impact upon the likelihood or potential for an individual to develop an eating disorder. Although body image and the role of the media has been a subject of interest that has primarily been concentric upon the means by which women are affected, the research article in question focused upon the means through which men are impacted upon by the media and the way in which representation engages motivations of self-worth, ego, and introspective analysis. By engaging with a survey of extent media as compared to media of 20 years ago, the researchers were able to measure the differential in promotion and the way in which role models were presented to males. What was understood, and represented nearly across the board was a situation in which “average” body construction was mostly reflected in the media of 20 years ago. For instance, if one considers comic books are cartoons that depicted Superman or Spiderman, these were invariably indicative of an average masculine build. However, when one engages with an understanding of current media and the means through which comic books, films, advertising, and movies depict childhood superheroes, it is clear and apparent that neither Superman nor Spiderman, nor indeed any other action hero, is represented as ordinary; instead, they are represented as superhuman and indicative of what can only be described as an Olympians build. Beyond merely understanding that a clear differential exists with respect to the way in which individuals are represented within the media, the research pointed to the fact that this divergent review of “normal” has caused an entire generation of adolescents to question their own self worth and engage in potentially destructive behaviours. One particular aspect of the research which has been performed by Leonard (2004) that leaves the reader to question the overall veracity of the findings has to do with the fact that the media of 20 years past, and previously, never engaged in a discussion or an analysis of eating disorders or the means by which psychological issues were represented within the individual. As such, an alternate view of the impact of media that could have been performed would have necessarily engaged a discussion of the manner through which current media is open to the many different types of psychological issues and disorders that are represented within different individuals. For instance, an individual that watches television or engages with current media will likely be presented with a character that suffers from an eating disorder. By means of contrast in comparison, one could easily view thousands of hours of television from 20 years past and never encounter such a disorder or even be aware of the fact that it existed whatsoever. Conclusion: From the information that has thus far been engaged, it is clear and apparent that eating disorders play a powerful role with respect to the way in which both men and women identify with feelings of self-worth and body image or importance. With that being said, even though there is a great deal less information with respect to eating disorders and its impacts upon the male population, the research which has been discussed references inquiry that has been concentric upon seeking to answer key questions of the way in which these issues are defined. Further research is of course required prior to eating disorders within men being understood on par with the way in which psychologists and analysts understand eating disorders within women; however, attempting to effect a singular answer with respect to this question is most likely the incorrect approach. Instead, future research should be directed at the multiplicity of different reasons and encouragements that young men have which can ultimately lead them to question their own self-worth or body image. Bibliography Andersen, A 2014, A brief history of eating disorders in males, Current findings on males with eating disorders pp. 4-10 New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Björk, T, Wallin, K, & Pettersen, G 2014, Male experiences of life after recovery from an eating disorder, Current findings on males with eating disorders pp. 185-194 New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Bunnell, D, & Maine, M 2014, Understanding and treating males with eating disorders, Current findings on males with eating disorders pp. 168-182 New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Cohn, L, & Lemberg, R 2014, Current Findings On Males With Eating Disorders, New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Greenberg, S, & Schoen, E 2008, Males and eating disorders: Gender-based therapy for eating disorder recovery, Professional Psychology: Research And Practice, 39, 4, pp. 464-471, PsycARTICLES, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Leonard, B 2004, Womens conditions occurring in men: breast cancer, osteoporosis, male menopause, and eating disorders,Nursing Clinics Of North America, 39, 2, pp. 379-393, AgeLine, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Norris, M, Apsimon, M, Harrison, M, Obeid, N, Buchholz, A, Henderson, K, & Spettigue, W 2014, An examination of medical and psychological issues associated with adolescent males that exhibit eating disorders, Current findings on males with eating disorders pp. 124-134 New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Weltzin, T, Cornella-Carlson, T, Fitzpatrick, M, Kennington, B, Bean, P, & Jefferies, C 2014, Treatment issues and outcomes for males with eating disorders, Current findings on males with eating disorders pp. 151-167 New York, NY US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 April 2014. Read More