The Effects of Coffee Intake on Memory Recall for Young Adult Males - Essay Example

Running Head: THE EFFECTS OF COFFEE INTAKE ON MEMORY RECALL The Effects of Coffee Intake on Memory Recall for Young Adult Males [Your University] 2007 Contents Table Page Acknowledgements Abstract 3 1.0 Introduction 4 2.0 Literature Review 5-6 3.0 Method 7-9 4.0 Results 9-10 5.0 Discussion 10-12 References 13 Appendix: Images and questionnaires 14-21 Abstract The issue of memory recall is a pertinent issue in post-modern industrial society given the increased amounts of information available to people, and he daily demands to retrieve a variety of data to function within the community. The aim of this research was to investigate the influences of coffee intake on memory recall of adults. Ten male Kuwaitian and Bahrainian participants aged 21-22 years were assed on memory recall across three image tasks in a pre-post experimental design. Baseline measurements of memory were made prior to two coffee intake trails. Each intake trial slightly increased the amount of coffee ingested by the participants. The results showed that the number of correct answers on the memory recall task increased across the trials, although the result was not significant. It was concluded that the major influence of coffee on memory recall remained unresolved, perhaps due to low sample number and low number of trials, or practice effects. However, there may be a tentative link between the amount of coffee and its positive effects on memory recall, as participant scores did increase. Memory is a child walking along a seashore.You never can tell what small pebble it will pick up and store away among its treasured things. Pierce Harris, Atlanta Journal The Effects of Coffee Intake on Memory Recall for Young Adult Males Introduction Coffee is a popular beverage in many parts of the world. It is considered to be a psychoactive substance given its effects on the human brain such as stimulation. As a mild stimulant, coffee's primary constituent - caffeine - can increase the activity of the central nervous system and so can increase a person's alertness and arousal levels (Johnson-Kozlow, Kritz-Silverstein, Barrett-Connor, & Morton 2002). Literature indicates that the effect of coffee on cognition remains inconclusive, some studies finding that coffee can enhance congnitive functioning, and others concluding that it is detrimental. Another genre of studies have attested that the positive effects of coffee are in fact task specific (Durlach, 1998; Johnson-Kozlow, 2002; Reidel & Jolles, 1996) The present research study had several aims: 1) To review current discourse and literature as to the relevance of coffee on memory recall. 2) To determine the actual effects of coffee on memory recall in adults. 3) To plan and design a valid and reliable research study that will provide answers for points 1 & 2. 4) To contribute to the broader field of cognitive functioning and memory enhancement. It is anticipated that the following mini-project shall answer the primary research question: Does coffee intake have a positive effect on memory recall in adults This mini project investigated the influences of coffee on memory recall through engaging the participants in three different tests based on recalling images after coffee intake. These tests were set to asses the difference before and after drinking coffee. 2.0 Review of the Literature The human memory is linked to organisation, encoding, storage, and information regarding our lives and experiences (ESTES 1998). Memory recall plays an essential role in human social, academic life and career prospects as it is associated with reading, writing, language and knowledge. According to a vast array of psychology literature, there is a clear demonstrated link between memory and learning, which is reliant on the retrieval of information in a timely manner. In fact, test of memory are often used to verify if learning has taken place for an individual. A three phases were connected to learning and memory. All of these phases are associated with each other: Encoding, which is linked with learning material presentation process. Storage, which is connected to information stored in the memory system due to encoding and Retrieval, which involves memory system stored information extraction (DISCROLL 2005). Memory recall is a serious issue that may influences people life in certain circumstances, for instance; eye witness testimony and remembering medical information while treating patients. According to Barasi (2003) the average caffeine cup of coffee contains 60 - 120 milligram per average serving and coffee can be a helpful toward hydration. The average adult intake of caffeine is 200 mg and it can be added to food as flavor ingredient (IFIC 2003). The world wide most favorite consumed drink which contains high amount of caffeine is coffee (James 1991). It has the highest source of caffeine which stimulates the psychoactive role (Fredholm et al., 1999) and has a major influence on cognitive performance (Lieberman et al., 2002). In terms of long-term influences caffeine has a positive influence on brain function (Maia and de Mendonca, 2002). Several researches supported the effects of caffeine on memory statement as Lienert (1966) and Bttig (1984) study demonstrates caffeine role in enhancing the function of cognitive tasks where observation is needed. Regarding Smith et al's (1990) study concerning the effects of caffeine given before or after lunch on sustained attention and effects of caffeine and evening meals on sleep and performance, mood and cardiovascular functioning the following day, memory was influenced in advanced cognitive tasks. Caffeine is believed to stimulate cholinergic activity as it is considered to be a methylxanthine which blocks the brain adenosine receptors. Research done by Reidel et al (1995) concluded that caffeine attenuates scopolamine-induced memory impairments in humans, and assumed that memory is improved by cholinergic stimulation. Memory function performance appeared to be enhanced however the feedback time did not meet the expectations. Thus, it may be the key aspect which improved cognition while cholinergic dysfunction was presented, but did not act as a central nervous system stimulant. Jarvis's (1993) study is associated with habitual coffee consumption on cognition which showed a dramatic positive connection between coffee intake and cognitive performance. In addition, another study by Reidel and Jolles (1996) determined that the positive effect of caffeine is in improving memory. As such caffeine intake may have a positive effect on enhancing memory recall (Jarvis 1993). According to numerous studies high intakes of caffeine have serious risks on human, such as: the risk of early spontaneous abortion among women (Cnattingius et al 2000), internalizing and externalizing disorders, and the risk of coronary heart disease (ADEBAYO et al 2007). 3.0 Method Participants Ten undergraduate [..] students from the University of [] were recruited using snowball sampling (i.e., by word of mouth). The sample was not stratified by age, gender or ethnicity and so did not reflect the diversity present in the wider population of [..] students. Participants who were eligible to participate in the study were males aged between 12-22 years. Purposive sampling was used as it could effectively group participants according to criteria selected before the research begins (Patton 2002). Purposive sampling is a popular method, as the sample size does not have to be fixed before the project begins. It was also an advantage for this study as the sample size was constrained by time and available resources (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest & Namey 2005). Snowball sampling is a common purposive technique, often termed as chain-referral sampling. Participants tap into their social networks to refer potential participants to the researcher (Mason 1997). Informed consent needs to be seriously considered at the start of any research project (Shank, 2002). Consent is about participants making a reasonable choice to take part in the study; as such their aspirations need to "fit" with the goals of the research (Mason, 1997). To assure that the participants for the present study were fully informed, the primary investigator discussed the consent form with their supervisor and colleagues, as well as having the form submitted to the university's research ethics committee. This assures the investigator that possible ambiguities in meaning, confusing sentence structures and missing information were less likely to exist within the form (Patton 2000). All participants were assured of their rights to confidentiality, anonymity, and voluntary withdrawal without penalty. It was made very clear to the participants that their responses to the image tasks would in no way affect their future at the university. They were provided with an information sheet about the study as well, and when they acknowledge that they understood their requirements they were asked to sign an informed consent form. The name and contact details of the researcher were made known, and community contacts made available in case participants felt distressed during or after the study (Penslar 1995). No incentives will be given for participation. Materials Three computer generated images were developed for this study (see Appendix) for participants to recall details from. The questionnaires were also developed for this study and were comprised of multiple choice questions. No validity or reliability checks have been done on the questionnaires, nor the images used. Design This study used a pre-post quasi-experimental design. However, this study did not use random selection and allocation to groups, so is considered a quasi-experiment. A quasi-experimental research design does not use random allocation of participants to groups; instead they are self-selecting (Bryman 2002). The quasi-experiment can provide a more real-world context in that the groups are self-selecting; although a drawback of this is regression to the mean effects, so that alternative explanations of the results can be provided for results (Mason 1997). Also, the research method may not represent the true differences between groups in regards to variables that are not measured and that may actually be the reason that the results are the way they are. As such, the quasi-experiment has several risks for its internal validity. Due to the lack of random allocation the results of quasi-experiments cannot be generalized to a wider population with as much confidence as with an experimental design. SPSS v15 was used for analysis of paired t-tests. The independent variable was the amount of coffee, and the dependant variable was the number of correct answers on the memory recall test. The t score indicates the number of standard deviations form the mean that each group average lays. It is a very popular method of hypothesis testing. The two sample t-test simply tests whether or not two independent populations have different mean values on some measure. The t-test compares the actual difference between two means in relation to the variation in the data (expressed as the standard deviation of the difference between the means).The statistics t-test allows us to answer this question by using the t-test statistic to determine a p-value that indicates how likely we could have gotten these results by chance. Procedure Participants arrived at the appointed lab individually and conducted the first image trial without coffee intake. They were then provided with 75 mg of coffee and undertook the second trial. One hour later they were given 150 mg of coffee and completed the third trial. 3. 1 Results Across the two trials the number of correct answers increased, however, the differences were not significant between trials, or between trials and baseline (t =.-58, p>.05; t = -67, p> .05; t = -91 p> .05). As such, the t values were not higher than t critical and so not significant. Table 1 Means and standard deviations across trials for correct answers. M SD Trial 1 15 5.8 Trial 2 20 4.1 Trail 3 24 3.9 1 2 3 Trials Figure 1. Graph of means across trails. 4.0 Discussion The hypothesis was not supported as although there were differences in correct answers between groups the differences were not significant. This may be due to random error, such as tolerance to coffee as participants were not queried as to their normal coffee intake. Also, it may be that more questions and or trials were needed to develop a more sensitive test. However, there was a steady increase of correct answers across the trials. Although this may be due to learning as the participants became aware after the first trial that they would be asked to remember details from the provided image. Future research may be more sensitive if it includes a range of memory recall tasks to control for learning and practice effects. Limitations and Recommendations A limitation of this study was that it was a quasi experiment in that random selection and random allocation was not used. Other drawbacks of this research were that the tests were not done across gender, age or across ethnicities. It would benefit future research to include more trials and more questions to make the study more sensitive. A greater sample is needed also to increase the power of the design, so that if a real difference does exist it can be readily detected. It is recommended that future research use an experimental method. The purpose of an experimental design is to establish the cause-effect relationship between sets of variables, by way of isolating assumed casual factors, and controlling suspected confounding or extraneous variables. For this reason an experiment is conducted within a laboratory environment to enable the researcher to isolate the cause, and to control for other factors that may influence the result. It is hypothesized that an independent variable causes changes in a dependent variable, and that alternate hypotheses can be provided by other factors that are able to influence the results. The design uses random selection procedures to recruit a sample and randomly allocates participants to two or more groups (i.e., treatment group/s and a control group). Due to these random procedures, experimental methods allow for generalization of results to a wider population, as the sample is more likely to be representative of that population. Hence, the purpose of an experimental design is to reject the alternative hypotheses through a process of elimination so that finally a solitary independent variable can be identified as the cause. Implications This research will contribute to extending on knowledge of the broader views contemporary researchers, educators and human service workers have regarding memory functioning and its enhancement. It is anticipated that this research will aid in better learning and training abilities of students, employees and service workers of the future. As well, it will extend on current understandings of memory functioning and factors to support, maintain and increase memory recall. References Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford. Durlach PJ. (1998) The effects of a low dose of caffeine on cognitive performance. Psychopharmacology, 140:116-19. Johnson-Kozlow, M., Kritz-Silverstein, D., Barrett-Connor, E., & Morton (2002) Coffee consumption and cognitive function among older adults. American Journal of Epidemiology, 156(9):842-851. Mack, N. et al. (2005) Qualitative Research Methods: A data collector's field guide. North Carolina, Family Health International. Mason, J. (1997) Quantitative Researching: An introductory text. New York, Sage Publications. Patton, M. Q. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications. Penslar, R. L. (1995) Research Ethics: Cases and materials. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Reidel W.J. & Jolles J. (1996) Cognition enhancers in age-related cognitive decline. Drugs Aging, 8:245-74. Shank, G. D. (2002) Quantitative Research: A personal skills approach. Columbus, Merrill/Prentice Hall. Appendix Images and Questionnaires Maitham Taqi, "BSC Nutrition 2ND YEAR, BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY" My name is Maitham Taqi a student in Bournemouth University studying a degree in BSC Nutrition. As part of my second year degree, I am undertaking a minor research project evaluating the influences of coffee on memory recall through having 3 different tests on images provided Before/after drinking coffee. I would really appreciate your help in this project. Please bear in mind, all of the response are confidential between the researcher and the volunteer 1. What is your gender Male Female 2. How old are you Test 1 before drinking coffee The following questions pertain to the picture that has been provided to you. Please choose the correct answer, either A, B for each of the questions. 1. The store shown in the picture is a A. Food Store B. Jewlery Store 2. The store is having a sale for items that are A. Gold B. Silver 3. How many people are in the store A. 5 B. 3 4. The businessman has what color hair A. Red B. Brown 5. What color shirt is the employee behind the counter wearing A. Purple B. Orange 6. What color is the bag the poor man is carrying A. Orange B. Black _______________________________________ Thank-you very for completing TEST 1. Test 2 AFTER drinking ONE CUP of coffee The following questions pertain to the picture that has been provided to you. Please choose the correct answer, either A, B Or C for each of the questions. 1 - The picture provided represent: A - Nature B - Desert C -City 2-How many characters were in the picture A - 8 B - 6 C - 4 3-What color shirt is the train driver wearing A - Blue B - Purple 4-How many questions were wrong in the picture A - 3 B - 1 5-What color was the train A - Brown B - Pink 5-How many basements were attached to the train bridge A - 4 B - 3 6- Please state the characters you have seen: _______________________________________ Thank-you very for completing TEST 2. Test 3 AFTER drinking TWO CUP of coffee The following questions pertain to the picture that has been provided to you. Please choose the correct answer, either A, B Or C for each of the questions. 1-How many bottles of wines were in the picture A - 8 B - 7 2-What was the name of the wine A - Grand Vin De CHEATUE LATOUR B - Grand Din CHEATUE De LATOUR 3-How many grape fruits were in the picture A - 3 B - 5 3-What was the wine glass bottle colour A - White B - Red C - Black 4-How many wine bottle openers were in the picture A - 2 B - 1 5- What colour was the wine A - Purble B - Red 6-How many knives were shown in the picture A - Three B - One C - None _______________________________________ Thank-you very for completing TEST 3. Image TEST 1: Image Test 2: Image Test 3: Read More