The Phenomenon of Masculinity - Assignment Example

?Other (s) Masculinity Introduction In the context of this paper, masculinity can be defined as the manifestation of a collection of qualities that depict characteristics of manliness and men. Many scholars have, however, argued that this definition is shallow, and have consequently used their literary works to bring a broader definition that is not only restricted to the anatomical characteristics of males but rather incorporates the view of manhood in the context of socio-cultural development. According to Gilmore, masculinity is not only all about the spontaneous biological maturation of males but can be seen as a set of challenges that boys often undergo as they grow to become adult members of the society (11). Similarly, Connell also concurs that masculinity should not be simply defined in the context of observable characteristics such as behavior and character (3). Many literary scholars agree that a comprehensive definition of masculinity should instead focus on the gendered relationships and processes in the society which men often under go at different times in their lives. Generally the difficulty to achieve a comprehensive definition of masculinity has been on going for several decades. For example in the Western ideas, a number of categories can be used to describe the modern masculinity. In this regard, some of the characteristics associated with masculinity in the Western context include status and success, confidence, toughness, self reliance, violence and aggression. In some literary works however, the term “masculinity” has largely been used to describe the dominant characteristics that have always prevailed in the society. For example, heroes and conquerors have always been associated with masculinity. Connell suggests the use of four main categories of defining masculine characteristics (13). These categories include hegemonic ideals, cultural glorification and complicit masculinity. According to this approach, men usually agree to undergo the processes and challenges of masculinity for a number of reasons such as to avoid being subordinated, to achieve the material and symbolic benefits that come with masculine roles and sometimes simply for the pleasure of it. Apart from the hegemonic definition of masculinity, another important approach is subordination view. In this framework, the definition of masculinity particularly focuses on dominance related to gender relations. For example violence and aggression as a characteristic of masculinity is associated with the struggle to dominate others while at the same time refuse to being dominated upon. Many scholars, however, concur that male roles and characteristics often change many times as men grow to become adults. Consequently in their diverse roles, men are often faced with diverse experiences that require them to develop their masculine norms and meet the expectations of the society. Contemporary definitions and view of masculinity Most of the contemporary definitions of masculinity have incorporated the belief in individual differences and individuality. In some societies, masculinity is still associated with aggression, taking risks, responsibility and other traits that define the ideal expectations of men in the society. Scholars have, however, taken an approach that defines masculinity in the context of the differences in the experiences of men and women in their relationships and other aspects of society. Despite the fact that such definitions may have a limited scope, they have generally been effective in the analysis of various aspects of culture. Although the roles associated with masculinity are often beneficial, sometimes men find masculine standards to be involving many risks. In almost all societies, masculinity has always been associated with unlimited power. The reality, however, is that masculine responsibilities are often characterized by conflicts, tensions and the need for self sacrifice. Consequently some scholars argue that defining masculinity in the context of sex differences can never give its full meaning. In the context of power and resistance, masculinity is widely seen to be closely connected with domination. It is therefore the responsibility of men to use their power and domination to distribute rewards or punish the other members of the society. Sometimes men may also have power over other men and this depends on factors such as race and sexual orientation. Connell defines masculinity as the fear of being dominated or controlled (15). This is particularly so because some men may adopt the masculine characteristics in order to measure up to their manly roles in the society and avoid being perceived as timid. In this regard, masculinity is used to refer to the personal concerns of men regarding their fear for failures. Generally almost all the literary definitions of masculinity underscore a comprehensive approach that focus on the processes which men often undergo at different times in their lives. Masculinities are often constructed in the context of social economic institutions and the responsibilities associated with masculinity may often be subject to variation depending on culture and the time of history with regard to the particular societies. In the recent literary works, most of the authors have primarily focused on defining masculinity as characteristics of maleness and manliness with regard to both individual and collective responsibilities of men. These definitions often take into consideration the masculine powers as well as the social status associated with masculinity. It is also evident in some definitions that there is a strong correlation between masculinity and the other social divisions such as race, age, sexual orientation, class and disability. Such correlations may however sometimes contradict the direct meaning of masculinity. In most cases, hegemonic definitions of masculinity have traditionally been concerned with three main perceptions of men. First and foremost, men are widely viewed as aggressive individuals who have to compete with their counterparts for sexual partners. In this regard, the hegemonic role of men does not end with their completion but also continues in their relationships with their partners. They are required to satisfy them and reproduce. Another wide view of masculinity is that men are supposed to be providers in the society. In almost all societies, it is the responsibility of the male members to protect women and their children from harm by providing for their basic needs such as food and shelter and ensuring their safety. Finally the male members of the society are also expected to take risks and be aggressive. These characteristics are widely believed to be important in their role of protecting the other members of the society. The hegemonic roles associated with masculinity are, however, facing significant challenges in the contemporary society particularly with regard to the emerging issues such as feminism, transsexuality and homosexuality. Connell further argues that the hegemonic perceptions of masculinity may also be determined by the general view towards the physical bodies of men (18). For example, men’s bodies are often associated with physical strength and therefore, the men who lack such attributes may consider themselves less masculine. The belief that physical work is best suited for men is another factor that helps links masculinity with the physical body. According to many scholars, masculinity can also be viewed in the context of sexual relationships. For example, sexual relationships between men and women are often characterized by men being dominating over their partners. On the other hand, females are always expected to be subordinate in their relationships with men (Hoffman 476). Finally the other important factor that is also closely associated with masculinity is the concept of fatherhood. For example, being a father is widely perceived by the society as a confirmation of the masculinity. All these categories confirm the general belief that hegemonic masculinity largely depends on the use of physical bodies and male characteristics by men to confirm their masculine roles in the society. Critics of the hegemonic masculinity view, however, argue that the roles of individuals in the society are not necessarily determined by their sex or physical characteristic. Additionally other people also argue that if sex is used solely as the basis of determining masculinity, then it would be difficult to understand the roles of transsexual or homosexual members of the society. Ideals associated with masculinity While it is undeniable that the ideal standards, norms and characteristics of masculinity are often subject to cultural and historical contexts, many authors concur on a number of universals ideals associated with masculinity across all cultures and throughout the history. For example, it is widely believed that masculinity is currently facing a crisis as women increasingly begin to embrace behaviors, attitudes and fashions that were previously associated with masculinity. Consequently these changes have significantly rendered some of the traditional ideas that were previously associated with masculinity to be irrelevant. Another factor that has also affected the contemporary view of the ideals associated with masculinity is the adoption of corporate capitalism by our current society. For example, most of the today’s workplaces do not require demonstration of manliness or manhood characteristics as was in the past. This is because most of the tasks in workplaces are now being done by machines and computers, and what is more important is knowledge and expertise rather than the possession of masculine characteristics (Hoffman 476). The value of masculinity is largely considered to be dependant on the various social processes that are gender dependant. Consequently men are generally expected to develop characteristics that put the m above everyone else with regard to morals, strength and values. As the bread winners of their families, many societies no not expect men to rely on other people but rather they should be self reliant and able to provide for their families. Through the acquisition of virtues associated with masculinity, men are also expected to earn respect from both their women and peers. Another important ideal associated with masculinity is being gentle and honorable. This ideal is particularly emphasized in empathy and generosity as well as integrity and hard work. Today’s definition of masculinity and manhood has also significantly been shaped by the media. The mainstream media such as television programs have always played a key role in the reinforcement of the perceived ideals of masculinity in the contemporary society. For example, in most of the media depictions of masculinity, males are rewarded for their aggressive, violence and dominant traits. Ideal masculinity is also depicted to involve financial independence and some form of physical attraction. Generally most of the male characters depicted in the media are often associated with the aspects of public life rather than personal issues and home. This is considered by many scholars as a reflection of our contemporary view of masculinity. In this context, women are assigned the role of nurturing and attending to home related issues. The media has also served to create the impression that aggression and violence are normal ways of expressing masculinity. Conclusion In conclusion, there is a general concurrence among the authors that the understanding of masculinity should not be restricted to the anatomical characteristics but should rather define manhood in the context of his social economic roles. In this regard, masculinity is the status given to the expression of characteristics that are associated with manhood such as success, confidence, toughness, self reliance, violence and aggression. These characteristics are considered to be dominant in the society and are still valued in many cultures. Works Cited Connell, Raewyn W. Masculinities. 2nd edition .Berkley: University of California Press, 2005. Print Gilmore, David D. Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven, Connecticut, and London: Yale University Press, 1990. Print. Hoffman, Rose Marie. “The Measurement of Masculinity and Femininity: Historical Perspective and Implications for Counseling.” Journal of Counseling and Development 79 (2001): 472-488. Read More