Troubled masculinity - Essay Example

Troubled masculinity It would not be a mistake to suggest that living in the social environment should be regardedas an irreplaceable prerequisite for the development of the inner potential of a human being. Indeed, on in the presence of other people a considerable number of our characteristic features are able to emerge. However, one should keep in mind that society is made up of people who belong to two different genders. That is why it is quite obvious that they are likely to perceive any changes that happen in it from a completely different position. It often occurs that changes put at risk the frameworks that already existed. A good example is the interaction of a primitive society of the people who live on the islands and the modern world. This paper will analyze the manner in which modernity has impacted masculinity in Papua New Guinea and utilize positions of different scholars. First of all, it must be noted that all the researchers the works of whom will be engaged in this paper agree on the fact that it may be rather difficult to clearly define what modernity it. For example, Turin points out that the very concept of the last is not clearly defines to the people of the West since it employs a considerable number of aspects (66). However, considering the experience of Papua New Guinea, Wardlow states that it is obvious that modernity is associated with new objects, relations and ideas that were brought by the colonists (145). In other words, it may be important to state that modernity for the region that is being explored should not be regarded as one of the logic stages of development of the civilization, but rather as a peculiar phenomenon which reflected the influence exercised by the Westerners on the local people of the islands. The peculiar aspect of this influence lies in the fact that the old forms of social relationship as well as commonly accepted practices are damaged; that is why, according to Zimmer-Tamakoshi, men feel that their masculinity is at risk. No matter now sorrowful it may seem, but one of the most widely practices ways of reinforcing masculinity in Papua New Guinea is manifested in the form of marital violence. All the researchers point out that this is a tremendous problem which heavily affects women. Indeed, Wardlow argues that men do not allow women to fully embrace the ways of modernity and use violence as a tool to control them (147). What is more important is that people of Papue New Guinea were traditionally known to be quite aggressive and impulsive which means that there is a significant history of violence among the local population. As a result, the contemporary rise in marital violence is not seen as something extraordinary: it is regarded as a valid manifestation of the traditional practices. In spite of the fact that this can be seen from different perspectives, it is beyond any doubt that women suffer from such state of affairs. Finally, the authors agree on the fact that Christianity should also be credited for changing the social environment of the region in question. Indeed, various Christian denominations saw Papua New Guinea as a platform to exercise their influence and were quite delighted to find locals there since with their help the congregation will become bigger. Nevertheless, it is obvious that Christianity is much different from the religious systems that have been practiced by the people there. That is why there was an important conflict between the newly introduced beliefs and the traditional ones. Zimmer-Tamakoshi points out that Christianity has played a negative role in the development of the social traditional beliefs (78). In other words, there is no wonder in the fact that local men felt that there has been an assault on their masculinity. Nevertheless, there are certain differences in the manner the scholars in question describe the problems of masculinity and the influence of modernity on it. For example, Tuzin suggests that in some communities there was a religious cult of men (121). When Christianity was introduced, these culture were abandoned or experienced as significant decline in their power among the locals. As a result many men were deprived of their religious exceptionality and other men decided to attack them in order to adjust the social balance. Wardlow suggests that there are communities that were not founded around the cult of men; however, they do have some strong traditions that are followed and their partial abandonment has had a negative influence on the social life (148). There is also quite interesting discussion about feminism and its possible counterpart in Papua New Guinea. For example, Tuzin is thought to support the idea that feminism was introduced to the locals to a certain extent (166). Of course, it is useless to say that is has the same forms as it took in the Western world; therefore, the connection between these two phenomena is rather vague. Nevertheless, the gradual increase in the power of women in different parts of the world might be attributed to popularization of feministic view. On the other hand, Zimmer-Tamakoshi notes that traditionally violence which was exercised by men was directed to keeping women in their place (88). However, as the social life has become more diverse, men were no longer as fixed on women which resulted in their partial liberation. What is more important is that men often revenge women for abandoning the old ways; that is why, feminism in Papua New Guinea is quite dangerous for them. It may also be rather interesting to compare the manner in which the scholars explore the relationship between the local men and capitalism. For example, Wardlow points out that many men still think that aggression is a suitable way to make a living: there are numerous account of hold up of busses or those who travel alone (144). In any case, men generally think that working is not a proper way to make a living and they consider this to be shameful. As a result, they often rely on their physical force. However, Zimmer-Tamakoshi noted some men were able to develop a broader perspective on the issue (100). Thus, they understand that in the contemporary society money is a significant power and they exercise their aggression not for the sake of it, but in order to rebel against the yoke of money. They say that once pigs used to hold the same place in the social environment, but men have always been able to boss pigs around, therefore, they should do the same with money. This opens a new perspective on capitalistic relationships within the society and the deliberately desire to be excluded from them. Having examined all the points that were mentioned in the paragraphs above, one is able to come to the following conclusion: there is an extensive array of literature that explore the problems of masculinity as well as the impact that modernity has on it. The researchers agree on the facts that the influence that the Western civilization had on the island nation is negative to a certain extent. They also point out that marital violence is seen as a way to balance modernity and traditions. Finally Christianity has also played it role. 2. The humanity has witnessed many significant changes in its history. However, there is something that has almost never changed: the dominance of men over women. Indeed, this might be regarded as partially a universal trait since the majority of the social environments around the global are patriarchal. This leads to the constant oppression of women: they are regarded as citizens of the second class. If one takes a look at the Western world, one will be able to see that there is much advancement in the process of emancipation. However, there are countries on the planet that seem to be lagging behind. Indeed, such regions as Melanesia appear to place women in extremely unfavorable conditions. This paper will explore social environment of Papua New Guinea from the point of view of women, determine points of agreement and disagreement of different researchers and explore the general impact of modernity of local women. For the purposes of this paper, the view of Dame Carol Kidu will be treated as a baseline. Indeed, this activist pointed out that speaking about the favorable steps that can be done to help women in their daily lives, one should keep in mind the fact that women do not exist separately, but are parts of their communities. Indeed, this means that prior to finding a solution to “women” issues, it may be logical to start looking for a solution to societal issues in general. Since the social conditions are becoming worse in Papua New Guinea, there is no wonder in the fact that position of women is becoming worse as well. Kidu also noted that education should play an important part in making life of a woman better. However, she pointed out that one should not employ the Western approach towards education: if local women will be taught some abstract matters that they cannot effectively apply in their daily lives, then education is not going to have any significant impact on them. Indeed, in Papua New Guinea, the division of labor is gendered; that is why women might consider education to be a waste of time since it does not help them to perform the tasks that they are expected to. In the interview which was given by Kidu, she also noted that the region in question is likely to benefit from more women making decisions. Indeed, the story of Kidu is an example of who a woman could rise to one of the highest positions in the country. She notes that women may be willing to making a change, but their voices are simply not heard. In other words, the more power they have, the more active they will become. There is no doubt that her experience should serve as an encouraging example for local women, showing that they are able to achieve a lot in case they fight for their right with legitimate means and not simply confront the male aggression. However, as of now, women can hardly unit for this and that is why they will have to suffer male oppression. Finally, one of the reasons of the contemporary deteriorating state of women that is mentioned by Kidu, focuses on the fact that people now tend to embrace social roles that are different from the ones they used to have. For example, she told the story of her relative who was to be beaten by men, but women organized and literally blocked any violence that was directed at her. In other words, the girl was saved by a group of women from physical violence. Kidu suggests that nowadays people not are not going to behave in such a way: everyone is much more self focused. It may be rather advantageous to engage findings of other scholars and compare them to the position of Kidu, also noting the impact of modernity on women. For example, Macintyre supports the points of view that despite the changes in the social environment, women of Papua New Guinea are sill not confident around men. In other words, they are not able to discuss matters genuinely when men are present since they are afraid of further retaliation. Keeping in mind the raising level of marital violence in the region it is obvious that women are much more concerned about their physical well being rather about arguing a particular idea. However, there are several idea that contradict with the point of view of Kidu. For example, the latter places a significant emphasis on education, suggesting that it will have a positive impact on women of Papua New Guinea. However, Macintyre argues that women there simply to not have time for education: there are a considerable amount of tasks that they have to perform on a daily basis and they cannot abandon them all. In other words, when give a choice between getting education and sustaining household, the majority of women will choose the latter not because they are not interested in education, but because they know that is more important for them at the present moment. In other words, Macintyre notes that those people who are willing to help women in Papua New Guinea should not focus on education since it does not play the same role there. Furthermore, the researcher is question also challenges the concept of a village. Indeed, for the Westerner a village is a social unit that is more general than a household. In other words, it is a homogeneous environment that allows people to act as one. However, the situation is completely different when it comes to Papua New Guinea: villages there are formed by different groups of related people; that is why one can hardly expect that it will be homogeneous as bloodline often compete with each others. Indeed, this means that the social life in the region relies on slightly different rules that it is generally expected. As a result, the traditional view that is exercised may not be advantageous. Finally, Macintyre would challenge the thesis of Kidu concerning the need for initiative from women side. Indeed, there is a long lasting tradition which dictates that women follow the lead of men; therefore, by introducing women to key positions, Kidu is not likely to have any positive impact on them, quite the opposite: she will endanger them even more. It is suggested that women in Papua New Guinea may be willing to work hard on different projects, but they do not favor the idea that initiative should be associate with them. In other words, they would like to see a foreigner in charge rather than a woman, just like them. Now, one should also turn to examination of the findings made by Wardlow concerning the same issue. One of the points where this scholar and Kidu would agree focuses on the function of marital violence. Indeed, Wardlow admits that many men see violence as an effective way to make their wives less socially active (99). In other words, they do not work to hurt women, they simply want to restore the balance in the social environment when men are dominant. As a result, marital violence is likely to decrease if men are explained that it may not be the most suitable way to control women. Nevertheless, Wardlow also notes that many women may not be willing to listen to the words of Kidu and perform actions that they are perfectly satisfied with, but the society might disapprove. Thus, the scholar explores the phenomenon of the so called “passenger women” who are involved in transactional sex on a daily basis. Wardlow suggest that this represents breaking bounds for many women is should be regarded as a threshold of their new lives. Indeed, having adopted the lifestyle of a passenger woman, one leaves the traditional framework of values. In other words, women deliberately make a decision to become what the Western world knows as prostitutes, but this is exactly what they want: this new life is better than their old one. In order to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon in question, on should explore the reasons that compel women to make such a difficult decision. The first and the most obvious reason is the much desired liberation from men. As it has been mentioned earlier, an ordinary women in Papua New Guinea has many tasks around the house: she takes care of children, works in the garden, cooks for the men and many other task. However, a passenger woman does not have a household to take care of: they is able to escape men that are treating hew negatively and she is not firmly connected to any group of people. As a result, these women feel that they are free from yoke of men to a certain extent. Another significant point that is mentioned by Wardlow is when women decides to change their lifestyle and are willfully engaged in transactional sex, they gain control over their body. Indeed, prior to it, women were subject to sexual desires of men and were not able to refuse; however, a passenger woman has a power to decide when she will be engaged in transactional sex. Therefore, she is more in control of her life and finds particular enjoyment in it. Indeed, such small things as control over body which is something that the Westerners consider to be an irreplaceable part of life of a free person is regarded as a significant achievement by women of Papua New Guinea. Finally, Wardlow also speculates that the increase in the number of passenger women and the appeal of this lifestyle might also be affected by the desire to experience retaliation. Indeed, the modernity brought many significant changes in the marital practices of the locals, including changes in the concept of bridewealth. At the present moment, when the latter is less emphasized, women see their free lifestyle is a way to retaliate men who married them for wealth. In other words, there is a significant commoditization of sex: women believe that they are able to produce sex and this commodity becomes something that they use to change the balance in the society. As one can clearly see, there is no single agreement on the issue of how the contemporary women of Papua New Guinea can be helped. Kidu suggests that one should put emphasis on education of women since this will help them become decision makers. However, other scholars suggest that education is not something that women truly need: they will simply not have time to get it; furthermore, women are generally reluctant to show any initiative. The researchers argue that men in the region traditionally use violence as a way to fence their women and not allow them to be socially active. This results in the fact that women are still not confident in defending their role when men are present. References Macintyre, M. (n.d.). Petztorme women: Responding to change in Lihir, Papua New Guinea. Retrieved September 15, 2015, from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Petztorme women: responding to change in Lihir, Papua New Guinea.-a0118688330 Tuzin D. (1997) The Cassowaries Revenge: the Life and Death of Masculinity in a New Guinea Society. University of Chicago Press. Wardlow, H. (n.d.). "Hands-Up"-ing Buses and Harvesting Cheese-Pops: Gendered Mediation of Modern Disjuncture in Melanesia. Retrieved September 15, 2015, from https://www.academia.edu/7206613/_Hands-Up_-ing_Buses_and_Harvesting_Cheese-Pops_Gendered_Mediation_of_Modern_Disjuncture_in_Melanesia Wardlow, H. (2006). Wayward women sexuality and agency in a New Guinea society. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Zimmer-Tamakoshi, L. (n.d.). Troubled Masculinities and Gender Violence in Melanesia. Retrieved September 15, 2015, from http://press.anu.edu.au//wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ch022.pdf Read More