Core Concepts of Quantitative in Medicine - Research Paper Example

?Quantitative Research Introduction: Research is generally described in two ways; either qualitative or quantitative. Various studies in which numerical data is collected and analyzed are termed as quantitative researches because they make use of scientific methods and pay emphasis on controlling the variables, collecting evidence that can be measures, and provide new explanations that can be generalized beyond just the research samples. Quantitative researches typically specify the number of research participants as sample from the population and display the data on numerous events taking place or biological variables. There is a statistical section in the research that reflects the cause and effect relationships. Numerous quantitative research studies contain elements pertaining to the qualitative data as well as the quantitative data. “In telling a tale of these two cultures, we often end up considering how lesser-known and implicit qualitative assumptions and practices differ from well-known and carefully codified quantitative ones” (Goertz and Mahoney, 2012, p. 3). The main purpose of this paper is to discuss the core concepts of quantitative research. Elements of quantitative research discussed in the paper include but are not limited to the definition of quantitative research, the assumptions underlying quantitative research, the various types of quantitative research, the suitability of quantitative research in different contexts, its advantages, the approaches commonly adopted in quantitative research, and the misconceptions in it. In addition to underlining the ABCs of quantitative research and elaborating them by reviewing important literature, this paper aims at scrutinizing the nature of role played by quantitative research in hospital administration. This forms a highly debated subject as mixed reviews have been introduced over time regarding the effectiveness of quantitative research in the healthcare field especially in context of hospital administration. It is strived in this paper to explore those reviews sufficiently as way of evaluating the type of influence exerted by quantitative research when applied specifically in hospital administration and assess the extent to which those influences relate to effectiveness. The paper is structured in a way that the first half elaborates on almost all the critically important elements associated with the type of research under observation and the second half attempts to critically analyze the effectiveness of this research in hospital administration. A. A Comprehensive Definition of Quantitative Research: Research methodology is a very vast subject. Some of the problems that researchers frequently confront while doing a quantitative research is which research method to select from among the different approaches to quantitative research, and how to conduct it with their limited knowledge of statistics. Quantitative research relates to the collection of numerical data and its analysis. Although statistics are not integrally a component of the quantitative research, yet they are of immense importance since they are used to contradict or confirm the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the numerical data. Since the selection of the correct research design plays a decisive role in the quality of research, it is recommendable for the quantitative researchers to seek advice from a statistician while the research is in the planning stage. Quantitative research has been defined in a variety of ways by different educators and researchers. One of the definitions of quantitative research is this, “Quantitative research is the numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect” (Sukamolson, n.d.). Another elaborative explanation for quantitative research is that it is based on methods which aim to explore meaning by producing numerical data. Quantitative research is “a research methodology which uses standardized and scheduled questionnaires and employs the statistical manipulation of numerical analysis as the main method of analysis” (Block, 2006, p. 98). Quantitative research is used in different areas of social and natural sciences that include but are not limited to biology, physics, sociology, geology, and psychology. Quantitative research is a social research which makes use of empirical statements and methods. It is a descriptive statement regarding the case that exists in the real world instead of the case that ought to exist in the real world. The empirical statements are typically described in numerical terms. The application of empirical evaluations is another factor in quantitative research. The empirical evaluations are forms that tend to find out the extent to which a particular policy or program either fulfills or does not adhere to a specific norm or standard. Significance of Numerical Data in Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is a kind of research that collects numerical data to explain a phenomenon that is analyzed with the help of mathematical methods. The first step in the way is the explanation of phenomena which happens to be a key element of qualitative or quantitative research. A research is executed to explain something. “The role of research, therefore, is to provide a systematic framework for obtaining answers to questions by studying and gathering the evidence in a scientific manner” (Offredy and Vickers, 2010, p. 2). The research questions vary according to the context of research. The quantitative research’s specificity shows up in the definition’s next phase. In the quantitative research, numerical data is collected. This connects closely to the definition’s final part in which the mathematical methods are applied to analyze the data. In order to apply these mathematical methods, it is imperative that the data is in the numerical form which is not the case with the qualitative research. In the qualitative research, the data is not ought to be numerical and thus cannot be analyzed statistically to draw the conclusions. The definition’s last part is related to the use of mathematical methods for the analysis of data. This is the areas the fundamentally comes to mind when people usually think of the quantitative research, and is usually considered to be the quantitative research’s most important part. This is indeed a misconception. Although the importance of the use of correct tools of data analysis cannot be denied, the importance of use of the appropriate instruments of data collection and research design is even more. The use of statistics for the data analysis is found to be the most difficult part of quantitative research by the people generally because of the level of complication of the mathematics underlying the statistical procedures. Areas focused by Quantitative Research: The focus of quantitative research is measurement and proof. The quantitative research selects a scientific approach. The fundamental concept of the quantitative research is that things derive their meaning and significance only from their tendency to be observed and counted. The main features of a quantitative research are numerical data upon which a variety of statistical tests can be applied. The approaches to quantitative research are multifarious and include but are not limited to descriptive, causal, correlational, and experimental comparison. Quantitative researchers use inferential statistics to generalize their findings of the research participants to the whole population. Quantitative research also employs the use of scientific method which is a time-honored procedure. “Quantitative research is used to answer questions about relationships among measurable variables… Steps in the scientific method include stating the problem, stating testable or measurable hypotheses, conducting the study, analyzing the data using appropriate statistical tests, stating conclusions based on the findings, and identifying new research questions” (Cottrell, and McKenzie, 2011, p. 3). Quantitative research is a process that advances step by step. First, the research question is chosen and defined, then the type of study is decided, the tools of data collection are then decided, the sample is selected, sample size is determined, and the collected data is finally analyzed, and interpreted to generate the research findings. Before starting a research, the researchers need to conduct a thorough literature review upon the subject to determine whether the question they have chosen has already been answered by the researchers in the past, and if so, to what extent. After the comprehensive study, the researchers identify the main concerns and concepts and develop them into a question. Before finalizing the question, the researchers think whether it can be answered using the numerical data collection and analysis or not. It is always customary to discuss the question with experts in the field and gain their opinion on whether the question is worth exploring. Different research problems need different kinds of strategies. One strategy cannot be used for all kinds of research problems. For instance, to study the effect of a drug on a certain kind of illness, an experimental methodology conducted in a tightly controlled manner is suitable. On the other hand, in order to determine the relationship between a certain kind of illness and a factor like age or behavior, it is more suitable to use a correlational approach. Conversion of Data into Quantitative Form: Although many times, it is possible for the researchers to collect the numerical data to execute the quantitative research, yet there can be times when it is not possible for them to collect numerical data for the research. In fact, there are not many phenomena in the healthcare sector that do not exist the form of quantitative data. Fortunately, the options for the quantitative researchers are far less limited than what they apparently seem to be. The data may not originally exist in the quantitative form, but it can be collected in a quantitative manner. This is achieved by designing the research instruments in such a way that they particularly aim at the conversion of phenomena that exist in some other form than quantitative naturally into quantitative form so that it can be statistically analyzed. For example, the researchers can develop a questionnaire in which the patients can be asked to rate different statements as strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree and assign these levels numbers from 1 to 5 respectively. This is how the researchers can get quantitative data for the patient’s perception about a healthcare service. Similarly, data can be collected for a whole range of phenomena, and can be made quantitative with the use of appropriate instruments of data collection like statistical tests or questionnaires. Assumptions in Quantitative Research: There are numerous assumptions underlying quantitative research, some of which are listed as follows: Reality is out there. It is objective and is researcher-independent It is possible to study the reality objectively Researchers need to keep at a distance from the subject of research and be independent of the research subject Research should be independent of the values of the researcher. Values of the researchers should, in no way, affect the research Research is mainly based on the theories’ deductive forms There is a cause and effect manner to test the hypotheses The aim of the researchers is to reach such generalizations that can add to the existing theoretical knowledge. “The essence of quantitative research is to use a ‘theory’ to frame and thus understand the problem at hand. Its starting point if not focus can be to contribute to the development of theory” (Jonker and Pennink, 2010, p. 64). The research provides the researchers with a way to assess, comprehend, and interpret a phenomenon Experimental Research: In experimental research, the researchers make an intervention in the controlled conditions to understand the effect of intervention. In the clinical trials, the Randomized Controlled Trial or RCT is the gold standard that is used most often for the assessment of effectiveness of a therapeutic intervention. The researchers split the population’s randomized selection into groups and make use of blinding, where the intervention’s treatment is concealed and thus find out and evaluate the valid outcome measures. Descriptive Research: In the descriptive research, data is collected for the testing of a hypothesis. “A descriptive study design is a systematic “look and see” that does not test hypothesis or answer questions about causal relationships. It can play an important role in describing trends and generating hypothesis about what might be going on” (Dewey et al., 2011). The researchers use this data in the epidemiological studies to assess a disease’s incidence or distribution or for the evaluation of the current needs and problems of healthcare. Correlational Research: Correlational research is used to find out link between different variables. For example, in order to find out the relationship between the weight at the time of birth and the prevalence of disease at a later point in time, correlational research would be used. Causal Comparative Research: The researchers use the causal comparative research to investigate the cause and effect relationship between a dependent and an independent variables, for example, between health and family income, or between truancy and results in exam. The causal comparative research provides the researchers with a way to study the status quo without having to intervene. It is not possible to manipulate the independent variable since that has already occurred. An alternate solution for the prospective researchers can be to conduct a thorough literature review and identify the areas in which further research needs to be executed. A vast majority of the research is regarding the development of knowledge in areas that have previously been pursued by others. The initial idea of research should be matured for some while before discussing it with the colleagues. Discussion with the colleagues or supervisors is important as it helps in the eradication of any pitfalls in the idea and facilitates in the development of the research question. Questionnaire Development: Today, a wide range of approaches for the collection of quantitative data are available to the researchers that include but are not limited to the telephone interviews, central location tests, and self-administered questionnaires based on the Internet. The key elements related to questionnaires in the quantitative research regardless of methodology are as follows: Prudent Selection of the Most Appropriate Methodology: The same methodology is not suitable for all types of research. The quantitative data is collected depending upon several variables like the type of respondents, the type of data needed, and the amount of information required. Budget, issues of security, and timeline are also very important factors that need to be considered by selecting the methodology of research. The Sample Design: A very important element in the research budget and the quality of data is the sample design. The researchers have to identify the right sample whether it is a pure random sample, a targeted sample selected for a particular kind of respondent, or a sample retrieve from the database of the patients. The Questionnaire Design: An element that plays a critical role in the quantitative research is the questionnaire design. A well-designed questionnaire comprises three main ingredients. 1. A fair understanding of the objectives of research, the issue, the concept, and the product 2. Ability of the researchers to document the questions in the respondents’ language in a clear and concise manner 3. Attention toward the flow of questionnaire and the logic of questions so that only the most appropriate questions are asked to the respondents rather than the questions that do not apply on their condition Pre-testing: Pre-testing of the questionnaires is necessary to ensure that the question statements convey their intended meaning to the research participants. Pre-testing of the questionnaires takes anywhere between three to five days before the commencement of the data collection. Pre-testing of the questionnaires helps the researchers word the questions and the answer categories appropriately, enhance the flow of questionnaire and improve the transition from one question to another, and improve the length of the questionnaire. Programming of the Questionnaire: Irrespective of the quantitative approach that is adopted by the researchers from amongst the different types discussed before, programming of the questionnaire is amongst the most significant ways of ensuring the quality and consistency of the interviews. “Programming typically automates sample administration, ensures only qualified respondents complete the interview, and enables the seamless administration of all skip patterns” (Campbell Delong Resources, 2012). Presentation of Results: It is customary to use the color graphics in the presentations and reports so that the researchers do not have to bury themselves in an extensive table of figures. Presentation of results in the right way enhances the organization of information and makes the research easily understandable. B. Effectiveness of Quantitative Research in Hospital Administration: Research in a vast majority of the aspects of hospital administration is generally defined with respect to health. Research in the areas of health services involves the scientific study of the health care treatments’ costs, use, effects, and the delivery of the health care services. Health research is not just about gathering the data for the sake of information; it extends far beyond this to involve seeking of the knowledge in a systematic way so that the delivery of health care can be improved. Such research necessitates the involvement of team members belonging to a variety of backgrounds that include but are not limited to the university researchers, health care professionals, social researchers, as well as the non-professionals. Along with the emphasis on the healthcare services, this research plays a prime role in the planning and operation of the healthcare services. Health research is defined as: [T]he process for obtaining systematic knowledge and technology which can be used for the improvement of the health of individual groups. It provides the basic information on the state of health and disease of the population; it aims to develop tools to prevent and cure illness and mitigate its effects and it attempts to devise better approaches to health care for the individual and the community. (Davies, 1991 cited in Bowling, 2002, p. 3). The apparent focus in the evidence-based health care upon the quantitative experimental research has been challenged by critics in the past who have emphasized upon the value of other types of research primarily because the practical challenges involved in providing the clinicians with evidence about effectiveness in a usable way are numerous. “Critics often point out that the research base is insufficient in many areas of clinical practice because existing research is of poor quality or does not address the relevant research questions, or there is little or no research available” (Walshe and Rundall, 2001, p. 436). Now multiple sources stress that quantitative research is a very effective way of conducting research in all areas of health research in general and hospital administration in particular. This claim elaborating on the effectiveness and huge payoffs of quantitative research is made on grounds that this research is distinguished in respect that it tends to develop the experimental conditions to yield reproducible and objective results that can be generalized later for a variety of settings. “Quantitative methods have long dominated the health sciences, exemplified by the randomized control trial (RCT) and its focus on hypothesis testing through experiment controlled by randomization” (Clark, 2000). This proves that the relationship between quantitative research and healthcare field could not be characterized as a newborn relationship as research literature proves it to be quite old and influential. Irreplaceable Role of Quantitative Research in Hospital administration: The the link between evidence derived from a huge pool of health related research studies and the decisions made in healthcare policy by the hospital administrators should be strengthened (Pope, Mays, & Popay, 2007, p. 3). The role played by quantitative methods in health administration programs is irreplaceable which reflects the obvious effectiveness of these methods. Decision-making methods propelled by the quantitative research form arguably the most important and irreplaceable tool in the healthcare administration field. This claim could be made on multiple grounds. Healthcare in the present age has become a highly competitive, complicated, advanced, and technological field and more responsibility than ever before now falls on the shoulders of the hospital administrators to ensure quality care at low costs. It is the primary job of the hospital administrators to improve logistics flow by seeking higher yields from the same level of resources (Langabeer II, 2008) for which they should aspire to understand all the quantitative research models which could help in decision making and extracting maximum benefit out of limited resources. Reportedly, the effectiveness of these models is such that they have a wide variety of practical applications ranging from forecasting patient demand and guiding the hospital administrators about making capital acquisition and capital decisions to helping in family planning, staff and patient scheduling, and managing supply chain and quality control. Such operational research models could be distinguished from other research methods in the respect that they make ample use of unique mathematical and statistical techniques which are based on “multivariate statistical analysis, decision analysis, linear programming, project evaluation and review technique (PERT), queuing analysis, and stimulation to name a few” (Ozcan, 2005, p. 1). All these techniques enjoy a good reputation in terms of effectiveness and hold phenomenal importance in context of health organizations’ delivery of care and the hospital administrators are responsible to address the day-to-day running of the care delivery process. Quantitative Research Alone cannot Promote Efficiency in Administrative Affairs: Administration of healthcare decision-making processes requires reasoned inquiry and judgment based on the information collected from numerical data which is why it is essential that they use proven and reputable scientific methods as quantitative research based on statistics, operations research, and management science (Ozcan, 2005, p. 6). However, it is argued that quantitative tools alone should not be considered effective to an infinite extent when applied in hospital administration. It is implied that such research tools though they have played an undeniably huge role in advancing and modernizing the administrative affairs do not have the potential to address every kind of care delivery and cost issue on their own. “It must be remembered that such quantitative tools do not, alone, shape the final decision, which may have to include other, qualitative factors to arrive at the right course of action” (Ozcan, 2005, p. 6). This suggests that the effectiveness witnessed in the hospital administrative affairs is shared by both quantitative and qualitative research methods and the pattern of preferring any one research method over another could lead to imbalanced results. Not one evaluating research methodology could be considered most appropriate or most effective for achieving the targets of any administration program. The products of any health services research be it qualitative or quantitative are assessed on basis of how useful they are to people with decision making responsibilities like administrators of healthcare institutions (Shi, 2008, p. 31). Besides criticism, this reality is important to realize that the quantitative approach has been chosen repeatedly at many occasions as an appropriate research method in the administration field because it works on the principle that variables in human behavior can be analyzed and processed as objectively as possible (Parahoo, 2006). The quantitative research approach also stands apart in context of effectiveness when applied in hospital administration because it employs “a fixed design that organizes in advance the research question and a detailed method of data collection and analysis” (Robson, 2007). Merits of Quantitative Research and Problem Sampling: Quantitative research is claimed to be an effective and most appropriate research approach because it uses the technique of probability sampling which significantly reduces the incidence of errors. Any hospital’s administrative affairs require prodigious precision and accuracy as even the smallest errors hold the potential to heavily interfere with the day-to-day running of the hospital. Sampling is the process by which the administrators choose to select a portion of the target patient population which represents the entire unit and it is claimed by Polit and Beck (2009) that it is always more appropriate, practical, time-saving, and economical to reach important decisions by working with samples rather than with large target population. An example of how probability sampling could be used in the administration field to yield better results and foment effectiveness could be found in a book based on the research process in nursing for evidence-based practice in which it is claimed that: “The researcher will obtain the names of all eligible nurses from the Human Resources Department in the hospital. This list of nurses will form a sample frame from which the researcher will select nurses at random by assigning a number to each name and ‘picking the numbers out of a hat’” (Proctor, Allan, & Lacey, 2010). The hospital administrators or quantitative researchers are advised to use the largest sample possible when probability sampling because a large sample can better represent the target population. For this reason, the size of the sample holds critical importance in quantitative research as it has the potential to influence the decision-making administrative processes for the better or worse. The applicability of quantitative research ideas on the healthcare administration reaps highly effective results as myriad problems found in administrative practice are reduced in this way and such application also helps in reaching correct decisions about “how to organize, structure, deliver, or finance health services” (Kovner, Elton, & Billings, 2000, p. 36) which forms the essence of hospital administration anywhere in the world. Despite criticism and arguments, this is considered a worldwide reality that quantitative research tools help the hospital administrators with statistics which are considered to play a critical role in the healthcare field. Statistics based on numerical data obtained from observation of different population samples summarize the “utility, efficacy, and costs of medical goods” (Casto, 2011). Criticisms of Quantitative Research when Applied to Hospital Administration: Quantitative experimental research methods are also criticized by some in relation to the evidence-based healthcare which means that concerns have risen over the principles and practice of evidence-based healthcare. It is worth mentioning here that the evidence-based healthcare makes good use of findings generated by quantitative research methods to improve health outcomes (Hoffman, Bennett, & Del Mar, 2009, p. 207). While it is greatly believed that clinical practice and hospital administration should be based on the best available research evidence derived from the most appropriate research method, the implementation of this belief has attracted much criticism. One criticism is that the abundant focus on quantitative research experimentation can stifle the efficiency, innovation, and progress. Other critics argue that the imposition of quantitative research in healthcare ignores differences or variations in patients’ expectations and community needs. Some critics also directly object to the abundant focus on quantitative research and stress on the value of other research methods and how they could promote efficiency. Critics often argue that the quantitative research base in hospital administration or clinical care is insufficient in many areas of clinical practice “existing research technique is often of poor quality and does not address the relevant research question” (Walshe & Rundall, 2001, p. 435). While analyzing the disadvantages associated with quantitative research methods, it is also argued that weaknesses in this research arise from the way in which “statistical tables or other sources of numerical data have been constructed over time, that figures are not themselves value-free, that figures raise questions of interpretation” (Block, 2006, pp. 98-99). Importance of Invaluable Statistical Information in Hospital Administration: Statistical information is of immense importance in the healthcare field, it holds critical importance for promoting efficiency, and can be derived efficiently by using quantitative research methods. The measurements obtained by quantitative research studies provide important data for statistical analysis (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2009, p. 24). Statistical information derived from quantitative research also helps in significantly reducing the multiple risks associated with healthcare tradeoffs which include the costs of lost opportunities as mentioned already when deciding on one economic option over the others. “Statistical information is invaluable in determining what combination of goods and services to produce, which resources to allocate in producing them and to which populations to offer them” (Casto, 2011). It is also claimed that the “statistics create order out of chaos by summarizing and simplifying complex human populations” (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2009) which underlines the effectiveness of quantitative research when applied to hospital administration. It is important to include the public’s preferences and needs in decision-making and in research (Bowling, 2009, p. 69). Given the extent to which quantitative research relates to hospital administration for optimizing care and promoting efficiency, it is important that public and private healthcare administrators compare the existing services with the community needs as way of running the hospitals efficiently with available resources (Hiremath, 2007, p. 100). Needs assessment is a critically important area of hospital administration as providing the services which do not match with the community needs or which do not address them sufficiently can cause huge problematic issues for a hospital organization’s safety. “Statistical analysis is a critical component in a needs assessment” (Casto, 2011) which helps the hospital administrators phenomenally in developing healthcare services that meet the continually changing diverse needs of a large community. Conclusion: Concluding, this much remains clear from the above discussion that quantitative research has a lot of influence on the hospital administration in terms of quality control, efficiency, and other important decision-making processes. Different sources imply that the significance of statistical information in hospital administration operations management is huge and that statistics dependent of quantitative research based problem sampling hold the potential to create order when pandemonium within a hospital organization creates an alarming situation. Since the quantitative research is fundamentally related to the collection of numerical data for explaining the phenomenon, there are specific questions that that are answered with the help of quantitative methods. In addition to the quantitative research tools, it is stressed by critics that qualitative research should also be used at the right time by the administrators if a wide range of issues is desired to be appropriately addressed. As research proves that the importance of data is swiftly growing and getting more consistent in the decision making processes, it has become more important now than ever before for the healthcare organization leaders in charge of the administrative process to thoroughly acknowledge the methods which aid in converting data to information. Statistical information is of very valuable nature and the healthcare administrators have to increasingly rely now on gathering data to process information to be used later. So, more and more hospitals now employ statistical analysis based on quantitative research techniques to measure their performance outcomes and improve on the results and this has become a pattern now which underlines the importance and effectiveness of quantitative research when applied to hospital administration. References: Block, D.J. (2006). Healthcare Outcomes Management: Strategies for Planning And Evaluation. USA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. Bowling, A. (2002). 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