The Science of Cloning & The Ethical Issues Associated With It - Essay Example

? The Science of Cloning & The Ethical Issues Associated With It by Details The Science of Cloning & The Ethical Issues Associated With It Cloning is one of the most hyped, criticized and debated subjects of the century, and has raised innumerable ethical concerns in legal, religious, as well as social realms. The term ‘cloning’ encompasses several scientific procedures, most of which have limited or no ethical issues associated with them. Most of the ethical concerns raised on cloning often relate to ‘reproductive cloning’, the term that refers to the creation of a new living being, which is an exact copy of another living individual, merely with scientific procedures that do not involve sex or copulation. Scientific advancements since the 1990s enabled scientists to clone animals, the first successful product of which is Dolly – the sheep. This demonstrated the possibility of cloning a real human being, the mere thought of which appeared unethical and dangerous. The present paper discusses the science behind cloning, its various uses and applications, along with the ethical issues and debates associated with it. It is important to understand what cloning is and how it may be an ethical concern, as it has become an integral part of our daily lives. This is because many of the products of daily use, beginning with the food, meat and milk to cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, involve cloned animals in some way or the other. Cloning technology may make it possible to clone human beings as bio-factories for harvesting transplantable organs, for other therapeutic purposes, and also as a solution to infertility (Genetic Science Learning Center 2012). As cloning technology is bound to pervade our future lives, it is vital to understand its possible implications so as to make informed decisions and ethical choices. History of Cloning and the Beginning of Ethical Concerns Although cloning appears to be the product of recent scientific advancements, its concept has been prevalent since ancient times. The word ‘clone’ has been derived from the ancient Greek word, ‘????’, meaning ‘twig’ (UNESCO 2005). The word was first applied in botany, for plant grafts, during the early 20th century. By 1970, the word began to be applied for viable animals and humans created from a single parent. In the present context, cloning refers to the production of an artificial and genetically identical copy any living being. Major advancements in cloning technology date back to the 1950s, when Robert Briggs and Thomas King attempted the cloning of frog species through somatic cell nuclear transfer. They were successful in cloning tadpoles using embryonated cell nuclei but were unsuccessful in cloning tadpoles from somatic cells. John Gurdon, a British biologist, later on successfully cloned frogs using somatic cells (UNESCO 2005). Cloning of mammals was considered a far-fetched idea at that time unlike the cloning of amphibians, as it requires complex procedures. However, this idea was soon brought to realisation in 1997, when a Scottish team at the Roslin Institute, led by Dr Ian Wilmut and his colleagues, successfully cloned a sheep, the first mammal to be cloned (McLaren 2002). The resulting clone was named Dolly, who went on to become a “celebrity, the butt of countless jokes, a symbol of modern science, and a source of hype and even hysteria” (Kass & Wilson cited in Logston 1999). The Dolly episode was considered a huge scientific breakthrough, receiving enormous media coverage globally. The significance of this feat was that for the first time, cells from adult mammals could be used for re-creating a genetically identical copy. However, contrary to popular notion, Dolly was not the first sheep to be cloned (Human Genetics Alert 2004). Since the 1980s, cattle, sheep, and other mammals have been cloned. However, in these earlier cases, the donor nucleus was an embryo and not an adult cell. Prior to Dolly, only embryonic cells could be used as the source cells for cloning. The successful creation of Dolly made it possible to produce clones of adult animals using adult somatic cells. Ever since, several mammals including mice, goats, cats, rats, donkeys, and horses have been cloned successfully. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to clone dogs, monkeys and several other species of mammals (Human Genetics Alert 2004). The cloning of Dolly resulted in widespread public outcry over the possibility of human cloning. Cloning of humans of was immediately prohibited and banned in the UK, US and several other countries. US President, Bill Clinton, commented on the issue saying, “Science is not God, our deepest truths remain outside the realm of science. We should resist the temptation to replicate ourselves” (Logston 1999). Gerard van Beynum, chairman of the NIABA, a Dutch Biotechnology Industry Group warned against the creation of identical animals, saying that – The driving force of why species improve themselves is a change of genetic information. The normal breeding system is the driving force of the world. If you interfere with that system, you will be in trouble . . . it’s the same as inbreeding (Logston 1999). Several reports since 1998 claimed to have created cloned humans embryos. Advanced Cell Technologies, a biotechnology firm in the US, published a report on the cloning of human embryos in 2001, only one of which could grow as far as six cells (Human Genetics Alert 2004). A laboratory run by several South Korean scientists, who claimed to have cloned humans, was shut down by the South Korean government. Several other similar claims have been made by Chinese, U.S., and Italian scientists, as well as the Raelians, a religious cult based in Canada (Human Genetics Alert 2004). These claims have been dismissed as publicity stunts. Cloning still continues to be a significant policy issue, both nationally and internationally (Caulfield 2003). The Process of Cloning Cloning refers to the production of an offspring without the involvement of sexual reproduction (Levine 2009). A proper understanding of the science behind cloning is essential for making informed decisions and for debating over its ethical concerns. Cloning is of several types, including DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs 2009). Most of the ethical issues associated with cloning refer to reproductive cloning. “DNA cloning”, also called gene cloning refers to the technology that involves the duplication and transfer of DNA from one organism to another. This technology was developed in the 1970s and has emerged a workhorse in molecular biology and biotechnology labs, ever since. Using this technology, useful genes are cloned and transferred to other organisms belonging to the same or a different species (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs 2009). “Reproductive cloning” is the cloning technology used for the creation of an organism or animal having the same genetic material as that of another existing organism. Dolly was the product of reproductive cloning (UNESCO 2005). In this process, genetic material or DNA from the nucleus of a somatic cell of an adult organism is transferred to an egg whose nucleus has been previously removed. This process is termed SCNT (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer). The egg containing the genetic material of the donor organism is then chemically and electrically treated to stimulate cell division and growth. The resulting mass of cells becomes an embryo, which is allowed to reach a suitable stage of growth in the laboratory. Once the embryo is fit for implantation into the uterus of a female host organism, it is implanted and allowed to develop into a fetus. The cloned fetus develops in the womb of the female host until its delivery after the gestation period is over. The egg that grows into the embryo and subsequently into an organism contains only the genes of the donor organism, and therefore, it is the “genetic copy” of its parent (UNESCO 2005, p. 8). However, its total genetic component is not 100% identical to the parent as it contains 0.05-0.1% of the genes of the organism from whom the egg was taken. This is because apart from the nucleus, some DNA exists in the mitochondria of the cell. A clone will have nuclear DNA of the donor somatic cell and the mitochondrial DNA of the donor egg. Therefore, even though the clone is genetically identical to the organism that donated nuclear DNA, it will also have some genetic component of the organism that donated the egg. It is believed that mutations that occur in the mitochondrial DNA play a significant role in ageing (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs 2009). Therefore, it is feared that a clone will undergo a hasty ageing process. This is not the only concern. The process of cloning involves the use of a somatic cell, such as cells from the skin, liver, udder, heart, bone, etc. These cells express only those genes that are needed by them to perform their specialized functions. In the process of cloning, these cells are reprogrammed to express the unexpressed genes. It is feared that incomplete or unregulated reprogramming of the cells may result in high death rates, disabilities and deformities of the clones (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs 2009). Therapeutic cloning refers to the cloning of embryos, and so, it is also called embryo cloning. This technology is not used for the creation of new organisms but rather for the harvesting of stem cells for therapeutic purposes. Stem cells are harvested from embryos and have the capability to differentiate into any kind specialized cell. Stem cells are harvested from those embryos that are in their blastocyst stage, i.e. after 5 days of cell division. As the process of extraction of stem cells from an embryo results in the death of the embryo, the process raises several ethical issues. Stem cells have innumerable potential applications for the treatment of cancer, Alzheimer’s and cardiovascular diseases, apart from use in organ transplantation. ACT (Advanced Cell Technologies) was the first to clone the first human embryos solely for therapeutic purposes. For this process, eggs were collected from the ovaries of women and the genetic material or nucleus of the eggs was removed. Nuclear DNA from donor skin cells was inserted into the eggs, which were then allowed to divide. This process however had limited success. Research on therapeutic cloning is currently under progress, and like reproductive cloning, therapeutic cloning also raises many ethical issues, although to a lesser degree (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs 2009). The Possibility of Human Cloning A major issue surrounding the ethical debate over cloning largely concerns human cloning. The very idea that a human being can be cloned appears disturbing. However, the question is whether human cloning actually possible, at least in the present day? Examples of cloning of various mammals, including Dolly, suggest that a huge majority of the embryos that are developed through cloning do not develop normally and have a very low survival rate. For cloning Dolly, about 277 attempts had to be made before obtaining a surviving embryo (Human Genetics Alert 2004). Reports indicate that the survival rate of cloned embryos is just 5%, and even less than 1% in most instances (Human Genetics Alert). Cloned embryos die early, and even if they survive until birth, physiological and other abnormalities are observed in the clones. They are also often found to suffer from Large Offspring Syndrome. Clones are also seen to have improper gene expression. Dolly was euthanised at six years of age, as she suffered from lung tumor and arthritis. It is believed that Dolly suffered from premature ageing as she was cloned from a sheep that was already six years old. In view of the prevailing technological difficulties and low success rates in cloning animals, human cloning appears highly improbable (Levine 2009). However, the cloning of humans for harvesting organs for transplants and for other therapeutic purposes has been contested (Friedman 2011). Cloning of humans for such a purpose however is against human dignity as humans should only serve as ends and not means (Friedman 2011). Human cloning is prohibited and banned across the world, however, cloning of human embryos for therapeutic purposes is allowed in some countries in spite of opposition from many religious and human rights groups. Major Ethical Issues Associated with Cloning Both reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning have raised ethical concerns. While the cloning of animals is permitted, reproductive cloning of humans is banned. On the other hand, therapeutic cloning of humans is permitted in some countries. Ethical Concerns over ‘Therapeutic Cloning’ Although therapeutic cloning of human embryos permitted by some countries, it is ethically controversial. Therapeutic cloning of human embryos is permitted in the UK, although the ethical advisory group of the European Commission considers it as “premature”. Furthermore, the European Parliament has voted against this form of cloning (Church and Society Council n.d). The major concern is that therapeutic cloning requires the donation of eggs by women, which involves an invasive, dangerous and painful procedure. Furthermore, the embryos developed as a result of therapeutic cloning have the potential to go on an develop into a living being, and it is believed that the killing of the embryo for harvesting stem cells amounts to the killing of an individual (Church and Society Council n.d). Another practice that raises ethical concerns is the creation of cybrids through therapeutic cloning. As obtaining eggs from women has practical difficulties, cow eggs are being used as alternative sources of embryonic cells. Embryos are thus being created using eggs from mammals, such as cows, and genetic material from humans. The creation of human-animal cybrids is considered unethical by many scientific and religious communities. However, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act, 2008, permits the creation of cybrids in the UK. Another ethical argument against therapeutic cloning of embryos is that cloned human embryos are most likely to be used in research that involves the creation of “disease state cells” (Church and Society Council n.d, p. 2). This would involve the creation of embryos cloned using a patient’s cells so that stem cells harvested from these embryos could be used for the production of a continuous supply of diseased cells. The ethical argument against this practice is that the deliberate production of diseased embryos is unjust and unethical (Church and Society Council n.d). Ethical Concerns over ‘Reproductive Cloning’ One of the major ethical arguments against ethical cloning is that it is ‘unnatural’ (Human Genetics Alert 2004). Cloning is considered unnatural because it is believed that it “shows lack of respect for the complexity of nature”, “it typifies the industrial imposition of uniformity on nature”, and that “by radically altering the biological basis of human nature, it will damage individuals and society” (Human Genetics Alert 2004, p. 4). Cloning of animals, including humans, results in the creation of genetically identical individuals through asexual reproduction, which is unnatural. Another major argument against cloning is that it amounts to “playing God” (MacKinnon 2012, p. 203). This notion circles around the fact that by creating living organisms through unnatural processes, man is “playing god”. Furthermore, it is believed that by cloning, it would be possible to exert complete control over an organism’s genome, by eliminating any random mixing of genes that would otherwise have occurred through natural sexual reproduction. The cloning of humans specifically raises ethical concerns. Firstly, by cloning a human, the cloner would have total control over the clone, which would be considered solely as a product. As John O’Conner puts it, “the clone is reduced to the level of a product made, rather than a person begotten”. (cited in Pimple 1998, p. 731). The cloner would easily take the liberty of manipulating and exploiting the “product”, which actually is a human being (MacKinnon 2012). Leon Kass argues that by cloning, man would try to “escape the bounds and dictates of our sexual nature” (cited in MacKinnon 2012, p. 204). Furthermore, the person who is cloned will not be unique and will lack the value and dignity that a normal person holds (Caulfield 2003). Another ethical issue raised against human cloning is that it is not safe. It is evident from experiments on animal cloning that it has very high failure rates, as out of 1000, only 30 clones are usually successful, and this would result in a large number of failed pregnancies (Genetic Science Learning Center 2012). Moreover, it is seen that cloned animals that somehow survive are usually bigger at birth than naturally developed animals. This abnormality is called the Large Offspring Syndrome and clones with this syndrome have large organs and suffer from respiratory and other physiological and anatomical problems (Genetic Science Learning Center 2012). Therefore, the creation of a human clone would predispose it to such disabilities and abnormalities. Another concern is that clones tend to undergo premature ageing and their genes are often improperly expressed. Cloned humans stand the risk of being exploited for organ donation, and other purposes. Another ethical argument against cloning is that people may seek cloning as a solution to infertility. It is argued that couples lacking sperms or eggs would wish to have a child that is genetically identical to one of them rather than seeking sperm or egg donation. It is worth questioning how a child would feel when he becomes conscious of the fact that he is a replica or a copy of one of his parents, and biologically, a child of one of his grandparents (Church and Society Council n.d). This raises the question over human uniqueness and dignity. The psychological effects of such a state cannot be investigated because of the absence of human clones, but that does not impart the right to inflict such a risk on the cloned individual by cloning him. Moreover, since there is a high risk that the resulting clone would be physically abnormal, there is a high probability that it will be discarded (MacKinnon 2012). The commercial use of cloned animals and their products also raises several ethical concerns (UNESCO 2005). Most consumers feel that cloned animals and their products are unsafe. However, legislations in most countries have certified that meat, milk and other products of cloned animals and safe for consumption and that such products do not require any specific labeling to differentiate them from products of non-cloned animals. Religious Concerns over Cloning There are many religious objections to cloning, especially human cloning, and it appears that most religions oppose it. Many Christian religious groups such as the Roman Catholics and the Evangelists believe that at the moment of conception itself the body is assigned with a soul, and that a fertilized ovum amounts to a living person with a soul. The killing of cloned embryos in the therapeutic cloning procedure amounts to the killing of a newborn baby (Robinson 2003). Therefore, the killing of a cloned embryo would be called murder. A major reason as to why most religions groups condemn cloning is that they perceive it as “humans playing god”, as they are carrying out unnatural procedures for the ‘creation’ of a living individual over whom they could practice control (Shannon 1998, p. 778). A second theme that runs through the religious issues associated with cloning is that humans have been created in the image of God and that humans are mere stewards who conserve what God created (Shannon 1998). Therefore, humans need to respect the design of divine creation while recognizing their limits and boundaries in this design. According to this belief, out of humility for god, man needs to realize his boundaries and not experiment with divine creation. However, cloning endeavors the opposite. While the ethical and religious concerns over cloning have strong arguments, genuine counterarguments in support of cloning also exist and the answer to whether or not cloning is absolutely unethical continues to remains elusive. The Debate Cloning has both advantages and disadvantages and so, there is a never-ending debate on whether cloning is advantageous and if so, do its advantages outweigh the ethical concerns. Logston (1999) lists five advantages of animal cloning. Firstly, it would be possible to create genetically identical clones for use in research. Secondly, it would be easy to propagate desirable and useful animal stocks. Thirdly, it would be possible to increase the productivity of transgenic livestock. Fourthly, it would be possible to induce targeted alterations in the genes of domestic animals. And lastly, it would be possible to research cell differentiation through cloning. The use of cloned animals in research is favorable because variations in experimental results that are caused by genetic differences in the tested animals are eliminated. Longston further discusses five advantages of cloning human cells and humans. Firstly, this could be used as a research tool for understanding the expression of genes. Secondly, it could be applied for the generation of new skin for victims of burns. Thirdly, it would make it possible to culture bone marrow for the treatment of cancer patients. Fourthly, it would enable the treatment of sickle cell anemia through the manipulation of genes. And lastly, it could be used for the treatment of, or as a solution to, infertility. Therapeutic cloning may also enable further advances in the technology of organ transplantation. Longston (1999) further lists some disadvantages of cloning. These include the health and medical risks, possibilities of somatic mutation, ageing, improper gene expression etc. Furthermore, the use of cloning as an alternative to infertility may have negative psychological impact on the resulting child and also on the parents. It may also result in the propagation of the cause of infertility to future generations. As is evident, cloning has both advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, while the debate goes on, and the scientific advancements in the field continue, policies and legislations will have to address the ethical and legal issues without compromising the advantages of this technology. Cloning Laws in the UK and the International Community After the announcement of the birth of Dolly in 1997, the WHO’s World Health Assembly affirmed two resolutions – WHA50.37 in 1997 and WHO51.10 in 1998. These resolutions were passed to prevent any attempts at human cloning, and state that “cloning for the replication of human individuals is ethically unacceptable and contrary to human dignity and integrity” (UNESCO 2005, p. 17). In March 2005, the United Nations approved a “non-binding global ban on all human cloning” that was supported by the US and several other countries; UK however voted against it (staff.lib.msu.edu 2009). Article 11 of the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights, 1997, by the UNESCO also prevents reproductive cloning of human beings. The UK had banned reproductive cloning by the end of 2001 (Human Genetics Alert 2004). Therapeutic cloning is legal in the UK. Most of the European countries were the first to ban human cloning and are covered by the Council of Europe’s Convention on Biomedicine and Human Rights protocol (Human Genetics Alert 2004). Animal cloning, although legal, is bound by several national and international laws and policies that ensure the safe and legal use of cloning technologies. It is evident from the preceding discussion that cloning, be it animal or human, has raised valid ethical and religious concerns. However, the advantages of cloning cannot be downplayed. Cloning has innumerable applications in the field of medicine. It has multiplied food and livestock production, apart from providing therapeutic benefits in case of many previously untreatable diseases. Cloning has the potential to revolutionize medicine, but at the same time, poses grave dangers, especially in the case of human cloning. The debates whether cloning is ethical or not will continue to exist, at least till scientific advancements eliminate technical and practical difficulties of the technology and make it safer. Since the advantages of cloning are extremely vast, as are the ethical issues associated with it, it is important to question whether the advantages outweigh the ethical concerns. As cloning is bound to advance, it is important for everyone around the world to be aware about the technology and its ethical issues, so as to be able to make informed and ethical decisions in the future. 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