The Analysis of Gender in the Family - Literature review Example

LIVING CULTURE: ESSAY Student’s Name Course Professor’s Name University City (State) Date Living Culture: Essay Introduction According to the excerpt, Massey (1992) views space as something that is created from social relations and, by nature, has power and symbolism. The quote goes further to explain that space is a complex web of relations of cooperation, solidarity, domination, and subordination. Therefore, space is not absolute or fixed but rather is a social construct and not a physical one. Accordingly, it follows that space cannot exist as an independent aspect from human activity since it is only conceived through the relations of people and groups within and even outside of it, through both physical and imagined ways (Massey 2013). Apart from being influenced by the people, space itself can create activities and relationships by shaping the understandings and identities of the people occupying it. This means that places cannot be construed merely as physical containers in which people exist and interact. Instead, the places are actively involved in and understood by the activity of human beings hence are relational and dynamic (Massey 2013). Massey also argues that space and time are interrelated (Massey 2013). Therefore, in any given place, there are moments of interaction in terms of social relations. Massey’s assertions can be utilized to draw implications for comprehending gender and sexuality based on the scales of space of the society and the family. Overall, Massey’s notion of space is true as it plays a critical role in determining the meaning of gender and sexuality, and the position of the two terms relative to other social constructs. Relations of Domination and Subordination From historical times until now, certain groups in society have possessed power over others. Essentially, power is the capability of an individual or group to influence or control the behavior and practices of others. The word authority is often used as a replacement in situations where power is legitimized by a widely accepted social structure. Since power is endemic to human beings as social actors, practices of domination and subordination are often prevalent in society, as explicated by Massey (Malone 2007). Generally, the dominant group tends to have access to power, which allows it to determine the standards or norms of socializing (Rohall, Milkie, Lucas & Lucas 2013). Most often than not, this group is usually privileged and possesses some form of economic control. In contrast, the subordinate group is, lacks influence and power, is usually disadvantaged and categorized, and receives differential treatment (Rohall, Milkie, Lucas & Lucas 2013). The analysis of gender in the family setting depicts the power, the symbolism, and the domination and subordination that Massey talks about. Evidently, there are gender gaps in society and domestic/sexual violence issues, which are a manifestation of power differences. According to Mansfield (2000), the psychoanalysis of family relationships shows that domination is dependent on gender and sexuality. In most cultures throughout the world, men tend to take the dominant role whereas women are mere subordinates (Richard 2008). In particular, women experience unequal treatment. In addition, due to the physical and cultural features that distinguish men from women, the membership into the subordinate group or even the dominant one is often involuntary (Richard 2008). It is also important to note that women in most societies are aware of their role as subordinates and tend to exhibit a sense of solidarity. Furthermore, whereas women are not forced to marry, they usually feel the subordinate role expected in marriage (Richard 2008). Therefore, the position that women occupy in space is that of subordination. Decision making in a domestic setting is an important activity and, as a result, remains the role of male members. In contrast, women are expected to support the decisions that men make. In addition, there is often an economic difference as men earn more than women do in domestic setups. Generally, men go to work to provide for their families (Richard 2008). The fact that they have more money means that they can make decisions that favor them. On the other hand, women are required to take up caregiving roles such as preparing meals and taking care of children (Richard 2008). The differences in gender expectations (or “normative” gender roles) symbolize the domination and subordination in the Massey’s space. Domestic violence has remained a serious challenge for families and individuals in intimate relationships. According to Stubbs (2010), up to 85% of females have experienced a form of domestic violence. The challenge is compounded by the fact that most of them are unwilling to report due to the fear of losing their marriage. Women occupy a particularly disadvantaged position in intimate relationships in that they are required to submit to their male partners. In addition, they are expected to undertake the “normal” female gender roles. Their inability to accomplish this expectation might result in violence directed towards them. The mere fact that women are the major victims of gender abuse and violence in the family setting highlights the power in the family space that Massey explains. The violence could be interpreted as a way of men using their perceived superior position to have their way even when the women do not want it. In the larger society, power, subordination, and domination are apparent when one analyzes the position of the female gender. In particular, masculinity, the gender gap, and the division of labor characterize subordination from women. According to Oakley (2000), there is a scarcity of women in higher positions of power in organizational setups, such as chief executive officer roles. This is attributed partly to the challenges that they face when attempting to climb the corporate ladder and break the glass ceiling (Oakley 2000). Further, decision makers in organizations tend to think that women are not strong enough to make the difficult decisions (Oakley 2000). The perceived weakness has made women to become subordinates in the corporate space. Connell's theory of masculinity asserts masculinities vary based on the individual, culture, and the time (Connell & Connell 2005). Consequently, hegemonic masculinity is perceived as the configuration of practice, which legitimizes the position of men as the dominant group in society whereas women are the subordinate (Connell & Connell 2005). The theory explains that certain roles are viewed as being masculine whereas others are viewed as being feminine (Connell & Connell 2005). This characterization of jobs or roles leads to discrimination of women in workplaces. The social hierarchy created through masculinity supports Massey’s assertion that the spaces have power, symbolism, and subordination and domination. The continued subordination of women is also evident in the wage gap in which women receive less pay for the same work done as compared to men (Williams Institute 2015). The disparity in wages between men and women also highlights the power difference in the social space. The analysis of sexuality from the perspective of the family also shows domination and subordination. Based on Alsop, Fitzsimons & Lennon (2002), the biopsychology of men and women is varied. Whereas men are uncomfortable with monogamy, women argue in its favor (Alsop, Fitzsimons & Lennon 2002). In essence, women expect their partners to keep fidelity to them. The differing viewpoints of men and women towards sexuality, therefore, signify subordination as men believe that they are powerful to have many partners. In contrast, women are expected to subordinate their men and not pursue other relationships outside their marriages. In the larger society, subordination and domination are seen in the interaction between homosexual and heterosexual individuals. The subordination of homosexual men and the dominance of the heterosexual men is prevalent in society. The subordination extends beyond the stigmatization of homosexuals. For example, gay men experience cultural and political exclusion, are becoming the key symbolic target for religious attacks, face economic discrimination and street violence, and experience personal boycotts. In addition, the masculinity of homosexual men is often placed at the bottom of the gender hierarchy. Furthermore, homosexuals continue to shoulder the burden of diseases such as HIV/Aids (Weeks 2010). Relations of Solidarity and Cooperation The social space is also characterized by solidarity and cooperation among genders. In the family lens, men and women form a familial bond in which they share love and support. Solidarity is evident in the manner that men protect their mothers, daughters, and sisters from outside actors. The spatial norms in the family entail men providing for their families basic needs such as food, clothing, housing, and education. Similarly, women take care of their families. Over the recent past, women have entered the workforce, which has helped them to contribute largely to their families’ expenses. In the societal space, women and men now collaborate in organizational settings to attain critical goals. Although the participation of women in the workforce is lower than that of men, their involvement in such activities has increased tremendously over the recent past. In senior management, the percentage of women leaders is also increasing. In fact, women are now driving a substantial segment of the economy. In the political space, the participation of women has also increased. Apart from participating in elections as voters, women are also emerging as leaders with a vision of driving nations. The collaboration of men and women in social and political spheres is a testament to Massey’s assertion that space has cooperation and solidarity. There is also evidence of cooperation and solidarity in the family based on sexuality. In heterosexual relationships, men and women have sex and procreate (Alsop 2002). Similarly, heterosexual members of families are now more accepting of homosexual members. They perceive them beyond the sexuality aspect. In the larger society, an analysis of sexuality also shows that there is collaboration and cooperation between heterosexuals and homosexuals. The passing of key legislations that extend the rights of gay men and women illustrates that heterosexual people are now more accepting of the homosexuals. Additionally, although homosexuals continue to face discrimination, this discrimination is often implicit rather than explicit. This is because there are clear ramifications of discriminating against someone based on his or her sexuality. Conclusion To conclude, Massey’s definition of space is accurate as space is created from social relations, is powerful, has symbolism, and encompasses the elements of domination, subordination, solidarity, and cooperation. In this essay, Massey’s claim is evaluated based on the lenses of gender and sexuality in the scales of the family and space. The relations of domination and subordination are evident from the constant power struggles between men and women that have led to an increase in the gender gap and domestic/sexual violence. Gender inequality in employment and wage gaps also demonstrates the subordination of women. Regarding sexuality, men tend to support the polygamy, which is also an evidence of domination. In the larger society, whereas heterosexuality is the dominant practice, homosexuality is considerably rejected. In fact, homosexuals continue to face discrimination such as targeted violence. Concerning solidarity and cooperation, men and women collaborate in families and outside the family setting to build a better society. Additionally, people of diverse sexualities often partner to attain common goals such as the promotion of gay rights. References Alsop, R, Fitzsimons, A, & Lennon, K. 2002, 'Natural Women and Men', Theorizing Gender, Cambridge: Polity Press. Connell, RW & Connell, R 2005, Masculinities, Univ of California Press. Malone, K 2007, Child space: An anthropological exploration of young people's use of space. Concept Publishing Company. Mansfield, N 2000, 'Foucault: the Subject, and Power', Subjectivity: Theories of Self from Freud to Haraway, Allen & Unwin, Sydney. Massey, D 2013, Space, place and gender, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey. Oakley, JG 2000, ‘Gender-based barriers to senior management positions: Understanding the scarcity of female CEOs’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 321-334. Richard, TS 2008, Sociology: A brief introduction, Mcgraw-Hill, New York. Rohall, DE, Milkie, MA, Lucas, J & Lucas, JW 2013, Social psychology: Sociological perspectives, Pearson Higher Ed. Stubbs, J 2010, ‘Restorative justice, gendered violence, and Indigenous women’, In J. Ptacek (Ed.), Feminism, restorative justice, and violence against women (pp. 103-22), Oxford University Press, New York. Weeks, J 2010, 'The Invention of Sex', in Sexuality, 3rd ed, Routledge, London. Williams Institute 2015, The impact of wage equality on sexual orientation poverty gaps, Available from: [23 May 2017] Read More