Evolution of the Gender-Related to Higher Education - Research Paper Example

Evolution of the Gender Related to Higher Education Abstract In order to describe women’s journey for accessing in higher education in United States, the paper reviews the nature of women relationship to their evolving status in addition to the way they are perceived in society. It also reviews access issues, differences, equity issues, policy actions and legislative measures over a period of time. The study reviews higher education student and faculty issues in present and future as well. Evolution of the gender related to higher education through history In 1820s, women’s struggle to access higher education institutions started and evolved in early twentieth century with its strong foundations and remarkable achievements. This evolution is associated with many social and economic factors that influenced American society. Mostly, speedy industrialization, urbanization and women’s introduction to formal schooling are considered to be great contributor to women’s liberalization and evolution of their traditional roles. Women’s acceptance as students evolved gradually into their acceptance at administrative and faculty level in the field of higher education. No doubt, education helped women in realizing their true potential and think beyond their value as traditional homemaker. However, consistent opposition to the whole process has always been there. Therefore, women’s acceptance into higher education institutions transpired in a gradual way through different form of educational institutions. The journey started from the establishment of female seminaries, continued with the women’s colleges and introduction of co-education and then, finally co-education system throughout all higher education institutions. The journey continues today on the strong foundation of past struggles and achievements. Presently, the goals of this struggle, determined by the values of contemporary democratic society, are equal opportunities and access to all the higher education institutions(“Women in American,” n.d.). Development of women’s struggle for higher education is divided in three phases. In the first phase, the period between 1820s and 1860 is included, second phase encompasses 1860s to 1890s while third phase covers the time span between 1890s and 1920s.This division is done by considering primary schooling as criteria and women who received education between 1870s and 1890s are considered to be the first generation of educated women. Barbara Solomon highlights the presence of two more generations while Lynn Gordon opposes and points out that there is only one (Solomon 1985, Gordon 1989 as cited in “Women in American,” n.d.). In the above case, selection of only post-Civil-War generation of educated women may be due to the fact that before war, only small percentage of women attended school even in many decades after Revolution. Before Civil War, American society experienced considerable developments which provided women with various unexpected educational opportunities. Higher education movement set the grounds for educational emancipation long before the establishments of women’s first academy. In colonial times, higher education was not for everyone but few colleges were established to train some privileged white men for their careers in ministries, law, medical and politics (“Women in American,” n.d.). In North, “dame schools” were working to teach children how to read and write. Girls were supposed to use these skills to read or teach the Bible only (Hoffman, 1981, p.6). According to “Women in American” (n.d.) during Revolutionary War, American society experienced women’s involvement in public and private spheres alike. Popular writings of Mercy Otis Warren, Judith Murray and Abigel Adams revealed the benefits of education for individual women while stressing women’s responsibilities as homemakers. Mary Wollstonecraft’s views from England also influenced the scenario. Based on Locke’s psychology, she insisted that women needs to be educated in order to develop completely as human beings and it is their right as rational creature(Solomon,1985,p.9-11). In post-Revolution America, various factors influenced the development of women’s education. At one side, there was Benjamin Rush, who stressed women education considering their roles in future American society as mothers and wives (Rush, 1798 as cited in “Women in American,” n.d.).On the other hand, as “Women in American,” (n.d.) study found that in the Second Great Awakening of 1790-1850, religious beliefs and ideals gave a boost to female education that helped women to support themselves. Palmieri attributed the time period between 1820s and 1860s as the “era of Republican Motherhood” or “Romantic Period”. Social and cultural changes that occurred during that specific period equated feminine qualities like intuition, insight and emotional empathy with genius. Therefore, by considering women specific moral and emotional traits, it was highly likely that women could develop into their intellectual roles as teachers, social reformers and translators (1989, p.147-148).Despite low number of women getting education during this period, the era proved to be the starting point of various form of women’s education and development of institutions. In the seminaries, curricula included the same subjects that men’s colleges taught in their junior and senior years. These seminaries proved to be the example for women’s institutions in Midwest, Far West and South. In addition, graduates from these institutions started working as teachers throughout country and spread Willard, Beecher, and Lyon’s educational perceptions. The ideas about women’s education that developed in early seminaries also played a crucial role in spreading feminist values during nineteenth century (Scott, 1995). Development of academies was on its climax in 1850s with the emerging alternatives of academies in North such as, normal schools and public high schools. Expansion experienced during this period coincided with the struggle for academic reforms in higher education. Established by Yale Report during 1828, liberal art college model was already threatened by the need of more practical form of education, issues of women education and minority groups, library expansion increasing demands of scientific experimentations and out-of-class teaching practices. First scientific schools started in Yale and Harvard, in addition to that, scientific and physical science institutions were already present in United States Military Academy at West Point and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy. Similar attempts to implement more developed curricula were made in women academies during 1830s and 1870s (Veysey 1965, Rudolph 1990, Thomas Woody as cited in Solomon, 1985). Introduction of co-education and establishment of women’s colleges was another achievement of this era. Oberlin College open admissions for black and white men and women alike in 1833.There goal was to educate together in order to spread God’s purpose on earth(Solomon,1985,p.21).The college established a separate female department and appoint a graduate from Mount Holyoke as lady principal of this department(Hehr,1938,p.5 as cited in Nidiffer,1995,p.17).Women’s colleges that were considered to be the extension of female seminaries idea was Georgia Female College at Macon, established in 1839 (Rudolph,1990,pp.311-312).However, according to “Women in American” (n.d.) institutions of this standard were very few and it was going to take considerable time for co-education and women’s colleges to establish strongly in higher education set up. The women who acquired a part of liberal education were considered to be the path breakers and educated women. They remained faithful to their traditional code of womanhood and followed the instruction about what they should study and to what extent they should follow the learning from values of male liberal education. In that very period, tradition of female teaching in school got considerable momentum. Industrialization and urbanization opened new avenues to females and provided lucrative job opportunities. Unmarried or teachers with a perception to remain single were highly encouraged to take up teaching as profession and first teacher’s college-Lexington Academy opened in Massachusetts in 1839(Hoffman,1981,pp.5-12). School teaching proved to be the foundation for women who wanted to take up other employment opportunities, for instance, teaching Indians at frontiers, participation in foreign mission, joining writing or medical profession. Changing social perceptions revealed the trust on educated women for their ability to handle difficult family situation. By joining the field of public services women initiated the process of moral reforms, provides support for women’s right movement and joined abolitionists. Women with anti-slavery leader established schools for blacks as well (Solomon, 1985, p.41).However, these were random and unorganized efforts. According to Nobel(1956,p.18) very first organized effort for providing higher education to African women was made in 1857 in Washington, D.C. by Mytilla Minor who established a school for Negro girls. There was some association between feminism and higher education but for most women liberal education took precedence over suffrage (“Women in American,” n.d.). The major development in the movement for women’s higher education emerged after Civil War and post-War period in the era called “Reform Era” or “responsible spinsterhood”. In this era, until 1980s, women colleges were established and the idea of co-education flourished (Palmieri, 1989, p.147). According to Hoffman (1981, p.xix) during Civil War, women became active participants in hospitals, farms, camps and factories. Approximately 7000 abolitionists, teachers and Christians served as teacher in South for blacks recently freed from slavery. Furthermore, immigration and expansion of western settlement triggered the need of teachers. In 1862, with the approval of Morrill Land Grant Act and state authority to provide land for women’s educational institutions, the process of women’s education also accelerated. The Act proved to be a stimulus for women’s higher education. Co-education had already been adopted by state universities, initially by University of Iowa in 1855, then by University of Wisconsin in 1863 followed by Indiana, Missouri, Michigan and California (Rudolph 1990, p.314). According to Nidiffer (1995, p.18) spreading co-education was an extended and acrimonious struggle which was associated with high degree of hostile emotions and unfriendly attitude towards women’s presence at campus. From the geographical perspective, co-education had firm standing in west. In most of the Northeastern institutions, women were excluded in order to gain benefits from social and economic elite. For instance, in Massachusetts, co-education system was not established until Boston University was established in 1873(Solomon, 1985, p.51). South had a very strong idealistic approach of gentle womanhood that restricted education to white women. Until the womanhood standard extended to black women, only a few black women attended co-education colleges. Furthermore, due to Civil War, most of the Southern institutions were closed. Despite the fact that most of the earliest universities of United States were established in South, acceptance of women in these universities was delayed as only five institutions were co-educational in 1910(Clifford, 1989, pp.5-6).This era is identified as a period of growth for women’s colleges. Most importantly, four institutions in North; Vassar in 1865, Smith and Wellesley in 1875, and Bryn Mawr in 1884 has momentous impact on both single-sex and co-educational institutions. Classical curriculum was formulated as a result of these institutions’ dedication to provide equal standards of education for women. Additionally, due to inadequate preparation of their students, these colleges established preparatory departments and arranged teacher-training opportunities and courses in social work and sciences (Rudolph, 1990, p.326). Rudolph (1990) reveals that Ivy League institutions put off women’s enrollment for the longest. This scenario resulted in the establishment of co-ordinate colleges that sponsored and affiliated female colleges with male ones. Finally in 1874, Harvard gave examination opportunity for women and in 1879; they offered courses for women outside campus representing Harvard Annex or “The Society for the Collegiate Institution of Women”. In 1893, this Annex was transformed into Radcliffe College. For a long period, women education stayed at a latent phase when women were considered special students and never awarded degrees. Graduation opportunities for women increased with the Helen Magill’s successful completion of Ph.D. in 1877 and availability of European women doctorates (Clifford, 1989, p.23). Simultaneously, women began to enter in institutions as administrators and faculty member. Most of the women employed by co-educational institutions were sub-faculty teachers. Their jobs were part-time and duties were social and disciplinary. Subsequent appointment of women as dean positively influenced women entering co-educational institutions (Nidiffer, 1995; Clifford 1989). Development in women education trends created conflicting situation in different social circles and several debates emerged mostly supported by scientific theories. According to Darwinian evolutionary theory, women are considered to be mentally and physically inferior (Solomon, 1985, p.56). The popular attack from Dr. Edward Clarke appeared in 1873 named as “Sex in Education”. He argued that higher education will trouble women’s health and consequently, hamper their reproductive capability (Clarke, 1873). The period between 1890s and 1920s is considered as “Progressive Era” when first generation of women graduates entered professional fields of medicine, social work, law and academy (Palmieri, 1989). Unfortunately, in early twentieth century, America experienced negative reaction for women’s education due to “Race Suicide Syndrome” theory and its assumption that in these institutions, celibacy is promoted (Felter 1906 as cited in Palmieri, 1989, p.150). Odell (2008) explains that America saw a dramatic change in women’s role in higher education, particularly after co-education movement of 1960s.With women constituting most of American undergraduate enrollment, prominent visibility at administrative level and occupying half of Ivy League institutions presidencies, debates over role reversal and its implication for future are heating. No doubt, women rights for higher education are long overdue, but men fear to be marginalized considering total loss of control over not only student but administrative, faculty and staff level. Even in sports, similar doubts are expressed. Women’s struggle for higher education is continuous. Today, American institutions are playing exemplary role in democratization of higher education and women’s role and status in society as a whole. Work Cited Clifford, G. J. (1989). Lone Voyagers, Academic Women in Coeducational Universities, 1870-1937.New York:  The Feminist Press. Clarke, E. H. (1873). Sex in Education, or, A Fair Chance for the Girls, Boston. James R. Osgood and Company. Hoffman, N. (1981). Women's "True" Profession:  Voices from the History of Teaching. New York:  The Feminist Press. Noble, J. L. (1956). Implications from the History of Negro Women's Education. In the packet of required readings, EDUC 844, History of American Higher Education, Autumn, 1995. Nidiffer, J. (1995). From Matron to Maven:  A New Role and New Professional Identity for Deans of Women, 1892 to 1916[abstract]. Mid-Western Educational Research, 8(4), 17-20. Odell, J.A. (2008).The Evolving Role of Women in Higher Education. Manchester Community College, Manchester, CT. Retrieved from https://www.usatodayeducate.com/challenge/ptkcsc-sullivan.cfm Palmeri, P.A. (1989). From Republican Motherhood to Race Suicide:  Arguments on the Higher Education of Women in the United States, 1820-1920.In Goodchild, Lester F. and Wechsler, Harold S. (ed.), ASHE Reader on the History of Higher Education(pp.144-150). Needham, MA: Ginn Press. Rudolph, F. (1990). The American University, A History. Athens:  The University of Georgia Press. Solomon, B.M. (1985). In the Company of Educated Women. New Haven:  Yale University Reading Press. Scott, A. F. (1995). The Ever Widening Circle:  The Diffusion of Feminist Values from the Troy Female Seminary, 1822-1872. In the packet of required readings, EDUC 844, History of American Higher Education, Autumn, 1995. “Women in American,” (n.d.).Women in American Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.policy.hu/slantcheva/WomenEducation.html Read More