Violence against Women - Dissertation Example

Violence against Women Introduction The violence channeled towards women was first viewed as a serious problem in the society during the 1970s, following the return of the women’s rights movement; the movements probed the area, and uncovered the issue as a pressing one in society (Johnson 25). Following the establishment that violence against women was a real social menace, scholars in various areas engaged in the exploration of the area, including those taking a feminist ideology explored it under the disciplines of sociology, philosophy, law and literature (National Research Council 40). Irrespective of the wide array of the research channeled towards the study of the area of violence against women – many of the studies focusing on domestic violence and rape – many information gaps can still be seen in the area (National Research Council 42). For example, there is limited information exploring the experiences of violence among minority women groups, especially that reporting the levels of medical services sought and injury cases. This research study was administered to study the experiences of violence against women, among men and women, in order to put the problem into perspective (Ellsberg and Heise 45). The incidences queried among the sampled respondents included the cases of physical assault faced during childhood; physical assault faced as adults and forced stalking or rape experienced during any stage of their life. The respondents that reported cases of violence were also queried about the effects of the abuse, including the level and rates of injuries and the need to seek health services. The aim of the current research study was to fill the gaps in the information available on the violence perpetuated against women. The line of inquiry was adopted, because the lack of information has been a major impediment to the development of strategies, policies and the programs aimed at addressing the problem of violence against women. Literature review The violence experienced by women can take a variety of forms, and the main ones include domestic violence, sexual assault and rape, women trafficking and prostitution and sexual harassment. In some cases, the violence experienced by women can be verbal, sexual or physical in nature, but in all its forms, it violates a woman’s sense of being or the body, irrespective of ethnicity, race; country of origin or age. It is important to emphasize the fact that violence against women is a gender-based issue, because it is a direct effect and consequence of the discrimination of women; it is an issue that needs to be addressed within a gender-equality framework (Ellsberg and Heise 45). Globally, the problem of violence against women is a major issue of discussion, mainly because it has been found to be a major cause of physical disability, depression, and alcohol and drug abuse (Alhabib, Nur and Jones 369). The violence experienced by women has also been directly attributed to increases in social costs, including those incurred in visiting medical facilities for about double the normal times. Ellsberg and colleagues reported the findings of a multinational study done by the World Health Organization (WHO), which showed that domestic violence is a confirmed cause of ill health and a reduction of life expectancy among women globally (1165). It is very difficult to give an accurate estimate of the number of people affected by domestic violence among other forms of violence experienced by women, and this is because many cases are not reported (Wilcox 723). However, the violence experienced by women is a phenomenon reported among all countries and communities, irrespective of the reference religion, race, class, gender, ethnicity or cultural inclination (Wilcox 725). In a study done by the World health Organization, it was reported that almost all the countries covered by the study showed violence levels of between 13 and 61 percent (WHO 27). The study showed that violence against women is a problem experienced, even in countries where gender equality and welfare levels are high, including Norway. Similarly, about 40 percent of the women from Germany and Australia reported experiencing some form of gender-based violence, including sexual and physical violence (Alhabib and colleagues 373). A number of factors are linked to the phenomena of violence against women, and these include that violence levels are higher among societies operating under traditionally gendered roles and norms (Wilcox 724). The gendered nature of roles and norms perpetuate inequality of resources and power between the two genders, and the effects include the use of violence as a conflict resolution strategy and an apparent endorsement of using violence (Alhabib and colleagues 374). In a particular manner, culture and gender are the main underlying factors that determine the attitudes adopted towards the phenomenon of violence against women within societies (Ellsberg and Heise 53). The combination of the inequality of resources and power combine with the culture-based endorsement of violence against women, to shape the identity, roles, and the relationships that inhibit access to support services for women. Service providers and scholars of social problems have highlighted that the women from marginalized backgrounds, including immigrant and refugee groups are more vulnerable to the problem of gender-based violence (Vives-Cases et al. 85). Walker also shares the same opinion, and he pointed out that a woman’s migration from one country to another appears to increase her level of isolation; the isolation increases her vulnerability to domestic violence among other forms of violence (26). A 2005 study done among nine immigrant groups in America also reported the same situation, and further indicated that domestic violence was higher due to economic and social marginalization; the difference was evident among the women from the mainstream groups (Bhuyan and Senturia 896). Other forms of violence reported among these groups include immigration-related violence, where the abusers of the women used the tactics of isolating them from working, friends and communicating with their families (Raj and Silverman 367). In other cases, the abusers capitalize on the woman’s lack of critical abilities and skills, including lack of work skills, language skills or education, in order to dominate them (Raj and Silverman 368). Methods and Procedures The study relied on two main methodologies for the collection of data; the two methodologies were incorporated into the study, in order to capture the various dimension of the violence experienced by women. In exploring the qualitative side of the study, the researchers studied the sampled group using focus groups, and semi-structured interviews, in order to uncover the factors underlying the problem of gendered violence. The semi-structured interviews were administered among the informants sampled from four main cities: Detroit and Saginaw (Michigan); Anchorage (Alaska) and Springfield (Illinois). The four cities were selected according to the prevalence of gender-based violence, including sexual violence and rape. The sampled group included the people that had direct information about the violence experienced by women in the cities, including the women that experienced it and the mothers-in-law and mothers of the victims. The sampled group also covered the men that had witnessed the gender-based violence, whether as the perpetrators, neighbors or friends to the victims. The administration of the semi-structured interviews was complemented by the provision of support services for the women that had experienced violence, in order to lessen the impact of the memories (Bradley, Curry and Devers 1758). Focus group discussions were also administered among the sampled respondents from the four cities. The discussions were done among respondents of different educational levels, ages, marital status and sex, in order to gain a non-biased picture about the violence targeted at women. The total number of respondents covered by the study included 2000 women and 700 men, and both groups narrated their experiences with physical assault, rape and stalking. The female group sampled for the study was higher than that of the men, because many about half of the women were those that had witnessed the gender-based violence of the victims covered by the study (Bradley, Curry and Devers 1759). Apart from reporting their experiences of witnessing the violence against women in their society, the men were also queried about their female-to-male experiences of violence. In order to gain insights into the quantifiable factors that contributed to the phenomena of gender-based violence, the researchers recruited a sample that would reflect the factors contributing to violence against women, from the four sampled cities. The questionnaire used for the study was designed to reflect national needs, taking into account the importance of integrating the views of the women with those of their households. The fieldwork was done during July 15 to July 24th, among the sampled respondents from the four cities. The information gathered using the questionnaires was decoded twice, in order to minimize the errors of information consolidation (Ellsberg and Heise 45). The two research methodologies were used to complement the weaknesses of the other, so that the researchers could yield empirical data showing the incidence and the prevalence of physical assault, rape and cases of stalking. Apart from reporting the aggregate number of cases, the research was aimed at exposing the ratio of male-to-female and female-to-male gender-based violence and the vulnerability of different ethnic and racial groups. More importantly, the study would give information showing the rates and levels of injury reported by the victims of assault and rape cases, and the cases that forced the victims to seek medical services. Results and Discussion Despite the fact that the study covered men and women samples, the paper emphasizes the violence experienced by women in the cities studied. The analysis of the data collected using the focus group discussions and the interviews administered among the respondents are summarized below. According to the researchers, the cases of violence labeled as physical assault included those entailing a wide array of behaviors, including simple ones like hitting and slapping to more intensive ones like using a gun to threaten the victim. The data collected showed that physical assault is a common phenomenon among American women, because about 52% of the women covered by the study had experienced some form of physical assault during their childhood. The cases reported during the victims’ childhood years showed that they were assaulted by adults, some of whom were caretakers, neighbors or acquaintances to their families, among other relations. About 2.0 percent of the women covered by the study reported that they had been physically assaulted during the one year period preceding the study. The generalization of the statistics collected through the study implied that about 2 million women experience physical assault in the US every year. Further, due to the indication that there was a relationship between the experiences of childhood assault and adulthood assault, it became apparent that it was important to do more research in the area. In particular, exploring the association between the two would foster the development of policies, programs and the changes to address the problem of violence against women in the US. According to the researchers, the cases of rape were classified as those entailing forceful oral, vaginal, and anal intercourse, where the victim was not a willing party to the sexual encounter. The data collected using the focus group discussions and the interviews administered among the respondents showed that rape was characteristically targeted at the youthful people. Among the sample covered by the study, about 18% of the women covered by the study reported that they had suffered an attempted or completed rape case during their lifetime. Also, about 0.4 percent of the women covered by the study reported that they had been victims of attempted or completed rape attempts during the one year preceding the study. Among all the victims of male-to-female rape cases, about 22% were youths aged around 12 years and below; about a third of the women that reported complete or attempted rape were aged between the ages of 12 and 17, when they experienced it for the first time. Drawing from the statistics reported about the rape and violence targeted against adolescents and children, it becomes evident that there was a need to explore and develop strategies for addressing the vulnerability of these groups. From the data gathered during the study, it became evident that there was a significant difference in the cases of assault and rape reported. In particular, American-Indians were the group that was most vulnerable to physical assault and rape; women from Asian Islander origin were less likely to report victimization, rape and assault (Bhuyan and Senturia 896). Hispanic women were less vulnerable to violence against women, as compared to those of non-Hispanic origin. However, the researchers recommend the importance of exploring whether the openness of the different groups, in reporting cases of violence could play a part in explaining the differences. Further, it is important to explore the relationship between the rates of violence against women and the demographic, social and environment differences between the different groups covered by the study (Bhuyan and Senturia 896). In comparing the experiences of violence reported among men and women, women were more vulnerable to domestic and partner violence, when compared with their male counterparts. The data showed that about 8% of the men covered by the study reported this form of violence, and that at the same time, 25 percent of the women reported experiencing violence. The perpetrators of the sexual or physical assault cases reported under this category included former or current spouses, dating partners and cohabiting partners. Among the respondents that reported physical assault and rape over the year preceding the study also showed the same difference, because about 0.9% of men reported it, and about 1.5% of the female respondents reported the same. The data collected implied that an estimated 834 thousand men and 1.5 million women experience physical assault or rape by an intimate partner every year. The statistics led to the conclusion that it is important to explore the strategies that can be used to prevent and safeguard women against sexual violence and rape, as compared to their male counterparts. The study also showed that the larger percentage of abuses reported by women was partner violence, as 75 % of the female respondents, as compared to 18 % of men reported it. The data also indicated that women were more likely to suffer injuries during the experience of assault, as 16% of men and 32 % of women reported injuries after suffering from violence (Ellsberg and Heise 45). Conclusion The violence targeted at women was found to be a major social issue during the 1970s, especially after the work of women’s movements exposed the area as one characterizing gender imbalance. Unfortunately, despite coverage in many studies, many information gaps have not been filled, especially in the information areas that can help policy makers and society in ending the social problem of domestic violence among other forms of violence. For that reason, this study was administered to fill these information gaps, and the areas queried included the rates of injury suffered after assault cases, and the factors underlying the victimization. The review of literature showed that violence against women has been a problem in all societies, and that it is one found in about all societies. The literatures consulted also showed that violence against women is a more common phenomenon among some groups of women, especially marginalized groups, as compared to mainstream groups. The study used two research methods, including focus group discussions to explore the qualitative aspects of the study and interviews to explore the quantitative data about the phenomena. The results of the study showed that women were more likely to suffer from violence, as compared to their male counterparts. The most common form of violence against women was physical assault; about 52 percent of the female respondents had experienced it. The data collected showed differences in the violence reported among minority groups and mainstream groups, as migrant women were more vulnerable to violence. The conclusions of the study included that it is important to explore ways of addressing partner violence, which was the most common form of violence against women. Works Cited Alhabib, Samia, Nur, Ula, and Jones, Roger. ‘Domestic Violence against Women: Systematic Review of Prevalence Studies.’ J Fam Viol, 25 (2010): 369-382. Bhuyan, Rupaleem, and Senturia, Kirsten. ‘Understanding domestic violence resource utilization and survivor solutions among immigrant and refugee women.’ Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20.8(2005): 895-901. Bradley, Elizabeth, Curry, Leslie, and Devers, Kelly. ‘Qualitative Data Analysis for Health Services Research: Developing Taxonomy, Themes, and Theory.’ Health Serv Res, 42.4 (2007): 1758–1772. Ellsberg, Mary, and Heise, Lori. Researching violence against women: a practical guide for researchers and Activists. Washington DC: World Health Organization, PATH, 2005. Electronic. Ellsberg, Mary, Jansen, Henrica, Heike, Lori, Watts, Charlotte, and Garcia-Moreno, Claudia. ’Intimate partner violence and women’s physical and mental health in the WHO multi- country study on women’s health and domestic violence: an observational study.’ Lancet, 371, (2008): 1165–1172. Johnson, Holly. Dangerous Domains: Violence against Women in Canada. Scarborough, Ontario: International Thomas Publishing, 1996. Print. National Research Council. Understanding Violence against Women. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996. Print. Raj, Anita, and Silverman, Jay. ‘Violence against immigrant women: The roles of culture, context, and legal immigrant status on intimate partner violence.’ Violence against women, 8.3(2002): 367-398. Vives-Cases, Carmen, et al. ‘identifying sociodemographic differences in Intimate Partner Violence among immigrant and native women in Spain: a cross-sectional study.’ Preventive Medicine, 51.1 (2010): 85-87. Walker, Lenore. ‘Psychology and domestic violence around the world.’ American Psychologist, 54.1(1999): 21-29. Wilcox, Paula. ‘Communities, care and domestic violence.’ Critical Social Policy, 26 (2006): 722-747. WHO. WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women: Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005. Print. Read More