Gender differences as a function of perception and stereotypes - Dissertation Example

? Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES AS A FUNCTION OF PERCEPTION AND STEREOTYPES Gender differences as a function of perception and stereotypes Introduction This is a literature review on Gender differences as a function of perception and stereotypes, which focuses on the leadership practices of male and female school principals at the secondary school level, and other leadership positions as regards to decision-making, interpersonal relationship, ethical leadership, instructional leadership, collaborative and professional development practices. It is important to address the transforming roles played by principals in terms of preparation for leadership and of development programs. Women have to be prepared for leadership positions in schools and for changes in perceptions relative to the conceptions of portfolios of school leadership. The increasing focus being placed on the preparation of women for leadership positions in schools raise a number of questions. The paper will factor how perception and stereotypes are playing out in their leadership styles. This aspect will be examined in the context of the past, present, and future by examining the literature relative to leadership styles as regards to gender. Main Body The changing leadership practices of school principals at the secondary school level are evident through the development programs and leadership preparations for women in positions of leadership in schools. There is now increasing emphasis on preparing women for school leadership positions, which underlines two connected concerns. Firstly, the prevailing patterns illustrate the ways in which preparation programs are intentionally leveraging designs and delivery aspects in preparing larger numbers of women for leadership functions in schools. This is to equip them with the knowledge and skills required for systemically changing school working. Such patterns clearly suggest the transforming characteristics of school leadership in terms of being driven and accompanied through conceptualizing the principal’s role in new ways. It is thus important to examine the changing roles of school leadership, the environment in which principals are developed and prepared, the gender differences relative to perception and stereotypes and stratification of roles. In considering them together it becomes evident that the increasing emphasis on instructional capacities in school leadership has disturbed the conventional gender balance of authority whereby men’s roles are related with masculinity. For example, male roles such as administration are indicative of higher status relative to women’s functions in regard to femaleness, child care and instruction (Bennett and Anderson, 2003). The shortage of women in roles of secondary school principals is a global phenomenon, which is evident from the fact that women comprise of at least half of total secondary school teachers but in secondary school administration functions they form a minority. It is required of professionals in the area of education to appreciate the fact that gender determines important roles in regard to women being assigned the role of principals in secondary schools. Analysts in the field of education believe that there are three standards relative to leadership and gender: That orthodox leaders are male Leadership styles are characteristic of being macho It can be theorized that leadership tends to marginalize gender. Tallerico and Blount (2004) have held that society has orthodox beliefs about leadership being vested with males and that such belief systems continue supporting male domination. They also believe that norms such as gender filters are perpetuated due to shared understanding amongst administrators that males have the ability to resolve matters relative to discipline. However, the transforming environment of enhanced accountability has impacted shifts in concepts of leadership through which principals are being inducted. In regard to enhanced local and national emphasis on enhancing students’ achievements and school performance there is now increasing emphasis on the roles played by school principals in being the main levers of the change process. It cannot be denied that schools demonstrating good performance are portrayed with good practices of instruction and with the ability to enhance students’ learning. For achieving such levels, it is required to have accomplished school leaders so that they can involve in persistent efforts with teaching staff, thus improving the school environment, school circumstances and other relevant factors (Begley and Johansson, 2003). In view of these expectations, the status of principals’ roles have transformed from being role focused to being dominated on managing and administering a specific means of instructions and systemic building capacity. Such developments indicate the present expectation of principals to perform roles of change agents in being thoroughly engaged with teachers in order to improve the curriculum and system of instruction. Principals with these traits have the ability to display a strong commitment and attention towards building a vision that motivates teachers to actively share in developing goals of instruction. Therefore, the role of principals implies having knowledge and skills that are different as compared to before (Orr, 2006). According to Marshall and Olivia (2005), the environment in contemporary societies requires that women ought to become convinced about succeeding as principals of secondary schools. Changing the environment for women to assume leadership roles in secondary schools requires a deep understanding on the ways in which leadership development programs can impact women in resisting socializing to conventional norms after they are provided with such positions. Marshall and Olivia (2005) hold they should rather adopt participative and democratic leadership styles. Some studies have revealed that men and women view leadership in diverse ways, while others have held that socialization in gender roles is the main determinant of leadership styles and that sex does not play a major role in this regard. Some researchers believe that there is a gap in the literature relative to the activities undertaken by women and their motives for them, as compared to similar intentions of men (Northouse, 2004). Research has indicated that there is a relationship between power and leadership as also between the realities of gender disparity in using authority. According to Rusch (2005), if gender is a suitable means of viewing leadership roles, then there is a need to consider women’s experiences and opinion. In doing so there is need to delve into feminist literature in order to understand the ways in which women principals feel constrained. But they have to be given leverage to express their success strategies. An effective way of analyzing leadership practices is through the feminist post-structural perspective in view of its focus on discourse, language and socio-conscious developments. In fact, feminist post-structuralism enables a means to produce knowledge that recognizes the present power relationships that are vital for the feminist critical theories to use poststructuralist concepts such as language and subjectivity. This is relative to the disruption of oppressive knowledge and is grounded in the belief that language comprises subjectivity. Therefore, change of oppressive gender relationship is evolved through the development of understanding that is identified with social interaction, history and culture by means of discourse (Bass and Avolio, 2005). Research outcomes have revealed women’s experiences as school principals have been more alike than diverse, especially in perceptions relative to gender and leadership, professional balance and early influences. Most women principals interviewed by researchers revealed that early experiences in their lives impacted the career choices they made relative to pursuing education as an area of specialization. For some women, experiences relative to negative incidents in childhood created desires to make school life for children fun and enjoyable. Many women informed that they were attracted to the teaching profession because their families had several people in teaching and administration jobs in educational institutions. The prevailing culture at home motivated them to choose a career in education. Other reasons included valuing education and the desire to compete in a world characterized with excessive prejudice. Although the experiences of women principals were both positive and negative, there was one thing common in the way they perceived, which was the objective of reaching the difficult sections of students (Lucas and Valentine, 2002). As per research carried out by Lopez-Molina (2008), in general, women principals and teachers do not appear to have any misgivings about expressing themselves relative to stereotype perceptions about leadership. Research on the perceptions of women principals and teachers has indicated that women mostly feel that leadership utilizes descriptions that are emotional and compassionate. Women in these roles do not appear to think of leadership from the conventional perspective because leading with compassion permitted them to perform better as leaders. Some held that the principal’s role allows them to remain all-embracing and compassionate about different things and that women tend to relate more compassionately with their leadership roles in schools. Women principals in secondary schools appeared to be more aware of how society perceives them as leaders. Many women continue to feel that they are not given attention as leaders, while some continue struggling in making comparison of their leadership styles with males that occupied their position before. High performing schools that are recognized for having effective instructional systems and the ability to create better learning outcomes for students need skilled leaders that have the inclination to involve in consistent efforts to work with teachers in improving the school environment and other conditions. In view of these expectations, the roles of principals have changed from focusing on administration and management to developing systemic capacities. Such developments reflect the present needs of principals to become change agents in improving the curriculum and instruction systems. These principals have the ability to display consistent efforts and attention towards building a vision that motivates teachers and encourages them to become party to the given instructional objectives. Therefore, the work of principals now implies having varied knowledge and skills levels. These changes in role perceptions of principals have significantly shifted concepts of school leadership by way of the nature of work and the terms of gendered alteration of the roles (Lucas and Valentine, 2002). Past models of principal leadership focused more on bureaucratic controls and were conventionally male dominated while women were mostly involved with feminine dominated roles. The changed perceptions have led to larger numbers of women aspiring to take on school leadership roles. Such feminization of leadership roles convey stronger societal power relative to increasing options available to men with better emoluments in other occupations. Another reason is the reduced independence in the principal’s role because of enhanced accountability and perceptions relative to deteriorating rewards and working conditions, which has led to constant loss of appeal for males. Tiedemanne (2002) concluded that the ranks of job opportunities are primarily determined by gender whereby men occupy the higher ranks and women lag behind in the ranking. The entry of larger numbers of females in the role of principals reveals increasing focus by school management boards on instructional leadership because of enhanced importance being given to academic responsibility. Such changes in school leadership; from focusing on administrative roles to capacity building and instructions during the last few years, reveal a parallel change in authority, whereby women and concepts of femininity conventionally depict that instruction has now gained in the male realms of leadership and administration (Lopez-Molina, 2008). Women’s perceptions often relate to struggles in making comparison of their leadership style and that of their precursors. The female is known to struggle with the ownership of her leadership roles while developing as a principal in view of the discomforts associated with the inflexible standards of leadership that were customary in the past. In similar vein, some principals have been experiencing the concepts of conventional masculinity as adopted by other female leaders. In general, most women principles have perceptions of being assertive about their leadership more compassionately in improving the school environment and in recognizing that the task is extremely difficult. They also perceive that respect they have been striving to achieve had been uncertain amongst their male counterparts (Loder, 2005). Females in school leadership positions have to constantly struggle in balancing work and family. They have to toil in figuring out the ways in which to juggle affairs relative to children and work, which are strongly based on perceptions about whether they feel capable of maintaining consistent relationships while performing their duties as principals. For many amongst them, life is a constant struggle in balancing work and family as they are unable to find role models in terms of females that have successfully juggled between home and work. A major theme observed by researchers in the context of perceptions of women principals was their conception relative to recognizing their own abilities and strength as leaders in schools. Most women in such positions expressed discomfort in recognizing themselves as having power. Some of them noted that the power that was inbuilt in a principal’s position did not actually create feelings of being powerful. They rather view themselves as being accountable. In explaining such perceptions they assert that they are human and are prone to make mistakes. If they make good decisions and achieve good results, it has to do with being powerful. But nevertheless, women principals mostly do not perceive themselves as being powerful. Some women feel that they underutilize their power and that, students and teachers make use of them in seeking to be advocated by them in positive ways. Although most women feel uneasy with the concept of power, they have found alternatives in perceiving about power as being role models for serving the community (Jean-Marie and Martinez, 2007). According to Davis (2005), the position of teacher is known to be the first post in the conventional route towards school leadership. This path is epitomized as teachers shift upwards to the position of superintendent or administrator of the school. Given that almost 70 percent of all teachers are females, it is correct to assume that women should occupy more leadership roles in schools than they presently do. Researchers now hold that past studies had focused on leadership through male perspectives. So far, there have been few women that have attained the positions of principals in schools, which accounts for the limited research that has focused upon delving into the perceptions of women relative to this position. Moreover, educational theories have developed from an andocentric or male centered structure because of inaccurate and unbalanced research approaches. This has led researchers to believe that they do not accurately represent the female paradigm. Thus, there is a need to expand on narrow male dominated leadership definitions and to incorporate the experiences, beliefs and value systems of women. Leadership patterns and practices in schools are in keeping with the profiles of transformational leadership that are available in the literature. It is correct to say that transformational leadership focuses on styles of allegiance and faithfulness and enhances the level of people’s conducts and ethical aspirations in terms of the leader as well as followers, which creates a transformational impact on both. Transformational leadership is now recognized as an excellent leadership model in the case of school principals. Researchers have successfully made use of the model to understand varied issues relative to leadership in schools (Coleman, 2003). Conclusion This paper has considered the different ways in which the union of large numbers of vigorous forces in the school environment and leadership has transformed the work of principals and gendered perceptions about this position. The changes are inherent within the area of preparing leaders whereby there has been a shift in focus on instructional leadership, which has changed the work expectations from school leaders. This transformation has led to several deep rooted changes. Firstly, all programs have now structured their selection and recruitment policies in providing for the existence of previous experience in instruction. This aspect has changed the conventional gender splits in the field of education whereby women were traditionally involved in instructional and class room roles, while men were more focused on administrative functions. In having provided greater importance to expertise in instruction, preparation programs have now started drawing more females who seek to be considered for positions of principal. List of References Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (2005). Transformational leadership. Erlbaum Associates Begley, P.T. and Johansson, O. (2003). The ethical dimensions of school leadership. Kluwer Academic Publishers Bennett, N. and Anderson, L. (2003). Rethinking educational leadership: Challenging the conventions. Sage Publication Coleman, M. (2003). Gender and the orthodoxies of leadership. School Leadership & Management, 23(4). Davis, Stephen. (2005). Developing Successful Leaders, Stanford Educational Leadership Institute. Jean-Marie, G., and Martinez, A. (2007). Race, gender, & leadership: Perspectives of female secondary leaders. Florida International University. Loder, T. L. (2005). Women administrators negotiate work-family conflicts in changing Times. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41(6). Lopez-Molina, G. (2008). Leadership reconsidered: A mixed methods study of developing future leaders in the community college. Capella University Lucas, S. E., and Valentine, J. W. (2002). Transformational leadership: Principals, leadership teams, and school culture. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Marshall, C., and Olivia, M. (2005). Leadership for social justice: Making Revolutions in education. Allyn & Bacon. Northouse, G. P. (2004). Leadership: theory and practice, Sage Publications. Orr, M. T. (2006). Mapping leadership preparation innovation in our nation's schools of education. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(8). Rusch, E. A. (2004). Gender and race in leadership preparation: A constrained discourse. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(2). Tallerico, M., and Blount, J. (2004). Women and the superintendency: Insights from theory and history. Educational Administration Quarterly. Tiedemanne, Joachim. (2002). Educational Studies in Mathematics, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Read More