Corn and Ethanol - Research Paper Example

?Corn and Ethanol: Effects on land and water in the Midwest United s Introduction The world is facing a fuel crisis and the depleting fossil fuel resources call out for us to find alternatives. It is the “biomass fuels”, primarily wood, that caters to most of our energy needs (Sinha, 1998, 1). Figures have shown that “about 82% of the world’s energy needs are currently covered by fossil resources such as petroleum, natural gas and coal” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2009, 1). The United States, which has less than 5% of the world’s population, is utilzing more than 20% of the world’s available “commercial energy” (Sinha, 1998, 2). At the present rate of use the world is expected to run out of “petroleum within 50 years, natural gas within 65 years and coal in about 200 years” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2009, 1). It was in such a high intensity energy use scenario that US started thinking of producing alcohol-based fuels from sugar, corn and other food grains. The ethyle alcohol manufactured “by fermenting plant sugars is a high quality liquid-fuel that can be mixed with gasoline or burned alone”( Sinha, 1998, 161). Ethanol can be produced also from grains… milk by products, or even garbage” (Sinha, 1998, 149). But the most cost-effective by product for making alcohol-based ethanol is corn. Hence, as early as in 1987, US had been meeting 90% of its annual ethanol consumption (3 billion litres) by using corn and other food grains (Sinha, 1998, 149). The increased demand for corn and ethanol in the United States has raised two kinds of concerns. One is regarding food security and the other is about environment. Ethanol production from corn has brought about many changes including, increased area of corn cultivation, decrease in the cultivated area of other food crops, water scarcity and also pollution (Malcolm, 2010, 19, 48). There has also been a general increase in agricultural inputs in corn cultivating areas to gain more productivity (Malcolm, 2010, 48). As a result, soil degradation and environmental degradation have become a problem in the Midwest US (Malcolm, Ethanol and a Changing Agricultural Landscape, 48). As the demand for ethanol goes on increasing in the present fuel scenario, this tendency will continue more vigorously in the future also. As the demand for corn increases, the availability of corn for food purposes will be lessened and the prices will increase. This has affected the food security scenario not only in US but all over the world as US is one of the biggest exporters of food grains in the world. This study will not go deep into the food security question involved with the corn and ethanol production, but will try to find out which are the effects of corn cultivation and extraction of ethanol from corn, on land and water in the Midwest United States. This area is chosen because it is the corn belt of United States (World Book, 2002, 1060). The area that come under corn belt is shown in the figure below (nass.usda.gov). Geographically, “the corn belt streches from Kansas and Nebraska to Ohio (Bogue, 1994, 1). These areas belong to the “upper valley of the Mississippi” river (Bogue, 1994, 2-3). It was through destroying the vast sea of prairies that corn cultivation spread in this region (Bogue, 1994, 2-3). This was the first step in a series of mega-scale human interventions that followed on the land of the Mississippi watershed from 1830s onwards (Bogue, 1994, 2-10). Initially corn was cultuvated as food grain but after bio-deisel production was started, the demand and prices went up resulting in an increase in production and cultivated area. Now, if the corn production pattern throughout the country is analysed, it can be seen that Mid-western United States is home to more than 50% of the total production (Mapdata, 2009). Review of Literature Impact on environment When a particular crop is concentrated in one area alone, such monocropping can have a negative impact on the biodiversity and environmental health of that region. This is what exactly is happening in Mid-Western US as well. The situation is further aggravated as the ethanol production factories are also located in the same region. This causes ground water depletion and pollution. As the majority of ethanol production factories are situated in the Midwest United States, environmentalists have been drawing attention to the impact of this industry on environment (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2009, 43). Impact on soil An interesting and alarming finding has been that “clearing natural vegetation to make way for bio-fuel crops also deprives the planet of “sponges” [humus and grasses] that absorb carbon (Shaffer, 2009, 141). Studies have also shown that “using fossil fuel-dependent industrialized agriculture to grow corn and then using more fossil fuel to convert the corn to ethanol provides a net energy yield of only about 1.1-1.5 units of energy per unit of fossil fuel input (Miller and Spoolman, 2008, 424). This contributes to the fossil fuel depletion of the earth. Also it has been observed that land cover change can “alter evapotranspiration, soil moisture, water yield and river discharge” and also “the quantity and quality of water (Defries and Houghton, 2004, 254). The intensive cultivation practices adopted by corn farmers to increase yield and profit is found to have a negative impact on the environment. The farmers have been increasing the agricultural inputs to optimize production (Malcolm, 2010, p.3 of preface). For example, 138 pounds per acre is the use of nitrogen by corn producing farmers while, Soybeans and Wheat farmers are using only 66 pounds of nitrogen per acre (Malcolm, 2010, 9). Pesticide use is also greater in corn than in other food crops (Malcolm, 2010, 9). Soil quality have been greatly affected by this (Malcolm, 2010, p.3 of preface). But there have been positive reports also coming in from the corn fields. If we examine the fertilizer use pattern in corn cultivation in the corn belt, it can be seen that “since 1985, per acre use of nitrogen, phosphate and potash for corn production have all declined (by 6%, 22% and 39% respectively through 2000), while fertilizer production efficiency has increased (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2009, 47). Monocropping is another problem that affects the land quality and biodiversity. When a natural landscape comprising of mixed crops and natural vegetation is converted into a single cropping pattern, the “magnitude of the annual mean run off” increases (DeFries, 2004, 256). This is because the complex root network of different plants together, holding the soil tight, will be altered into a uniform pattern where plants are placed in equal spacing. There will be space between each row of the plant where there are very less presence of roots. These will turn into channels of soil erosion. It is a proven fact that Corn being a crop planted in rows, there is a greater possibility of soil getting eroded (Malcolm, 2010, 10). Wheat and rice are sown in the field and their roots have a tendency to form a network and hold on to the soil. This prevents soil erosion. But when a wheat or rice field is converted into a corn field, the crop is planted in rows, thus enhancing erosion. It is also observed that to produce the quantity of corn that is envisaged by US for 2017, will need “half the world’s land surface (Johansen, 2008, 72). Impact on water It has been a known fact that “land use and land cover change …cause important changes to the hydrology of the [Mississippi] basin through their impacts on the land surface energy and water balance (Defries Asner and Houghton, 2004, 254). It was calculated that “in USDA Region 7, which comprises North Dacota, South Dacota, Kansas and Nebraska, the production of one bushel of corn consumes an average of 865 gallons of fresh water from irrigation (Mittal, 2010, 8). This is at the cultuvation stage and the ethanol production process also consumes huge quantity of fresh water. One study has shown that “3.5 to 6 units of water are used for each unit of ethanol produced (Keeney and Muller, 2006). Another negative impacts of corn cultivation have been “ crop residue removal effects on water capture (runoff and inflitration effects), water retention (evaporation control)” and also the impact on the soil which needs “surface protection for controlling erosion, organic matter content, structure development” etc. (Schillinger, 2010, 34). Allowing the corn stover to be winter-grazed is a common practice among farmers and also they try to earn some extra income by selling the stover (Schillinger, 2004, 151). This results in the removal of protection coverage from the soil. The ethanol producing companies have to get water consumption permission from local water districts. The deepening of the crisis regarding water use became evident when, “one Minnesotta local water district denied a permit for a proposed biorefinery due to concerns about limited water supply in the area (Mittal, 2010, 15). Similar experiences are reported from other countries who adopted ethanol production even earlier. In Madrid, in Spain, it was found that “water table declined by more than a foot a year on average between 1980 and 1996 (caused by corn cultivation and ethanol production)... (and) water needs for corn-to-fuel processing could draw 176 million gallons per year from the aquifer (Environmental Defense Fund, 2011). The below-given map shows the water availability of Nebraska region and the pressure that existing and forthcoming ethanol plants will put on the Ogallala aquifer (Environmantal Defense Fund, 2011). The Northern plains, which is already facing water scarcity, depends on the Ogallala aquifer for its water needs (Mittal, 2010, 9). In 2009, it was found by a study that “water levels in the aquifer had dropped more than 150 feet in parts of Southwest Kansas and the Texas Panhandle, where crop irrigation is intense and recharge to the aquifer is minimal (Mittal, 2010, 9). The same study has also shown that “in 2000, about 97 percent of the water withdrawn from the aquifer was used for irrigation” (Mittal, 2010, 9). Here, it can be seen that the water sources are very little as compared to the number of plants. This will eventually lead to water scarcity and develop into a big water conflict between the industry and the residing people, including food grain farmers. This also has a potential to impact the corn cultivation and the factories even. The increased use of fertilizers and pesticides by corn farmers has an impact on the quality of water as well (Malcolm, 2010, p.3 of preface). The “field run off of nitrogen and Phosphorus”, contaminates surface water while “nitrogen leaching below the crop root zone” is found to affect the quality of the ground water (Malcolm, 2010, 10). It is revealed that nitrogen leaching will rise by “23,000 tons over base line levels” by 2015 (Malcolm, 2010, 27). In Iowa, similar impacts have been discovered “including nutrient run off and increased bacteria counts as well as leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus into ground water” (Mittal, 2010, 10). The run of and leaching of pesticides and weedicides also have the same effects (Malcolm, 2010, 10). Studies have detected pesticide residue in “97 percent of streams in agricultural and urban watersheds” and also in “61 percent of shallow wells” in the corn belt (Mittal, 2010, 10). The fertilizer run off is also found to cause excessive algae growth in surface water (Mittal, 2010, 10). Another dangerous impact on water is the condition of hypoxia, i.e; oxygen deprivation, caused in the Gulf of Mexico because of the “fertilizer and pesticide runoff in the Mississippi River Basin”, as a result of the “ethanol feedstock production.”(Malcolm, 2010, 10). When the water is deprived of the necessary ratio of oxygen, it is the whole ecosystem that will be under peril. Many specii living in water will be destroyed and there will be a corresponding change in the quality of the water. In marine water also, the impact has been visible. Uncontrollable algal growth has “created ‘dead zones,’ which cannot support fish or any other organism that needs oxygen to survive,” along the coasts of the corn belt (Mittal, 2010, 10). Pollution from Factories When ethanol is produced in a factory, water and air pollution occurs (Alternative Automotive and Energy Efficiency, n.d., 110). These factories give out effluents that pollute the surface and ground water (Alternative Automotive and Energy Efficiency, n.d., 110). It is calculated that “for each litre of ethanol produced using corn, about 13 l of waste water are produced” (Alternative Automotive and Energy Efficiency, n.d., 110). This waste water causes two kinds of problems. This water is found to have a “biological oxygen demand (BOD) of 18,000-37,000 mg/l depending on the type of plant” ((Alternative Automotive and Energy Efficiency, n.d., 110). Also, the calculated cost of processing this waste water will amount to 4 kcal per kilogram of biological oxygen demand ((Alternative Automotive and Energy Efficiency, n.d., 110). Global warming Yet another significant finding has been that the changes in land use caused by rising demand for corn-based ethanol is causing global warming by making green house gas emissions almost double over 30 years (Johansen, 2008, 74). In forest land converted into corn fields, once the trees are cut down, the peat in the soil gets dried because of the parches created in the soil and when the peat oxidizes, carbon dioxide is relased into the atmosphere (Johansen, 2008, 82). Green house effect will eventually deplete water sources, and destroy the productivity of the soil. Food Security US have been exporting huge quantities of corn and other food grains as human food (Westra, Bosselmann, and Westra, 2008, 251). US corn and grain exports amount to “US$3 billion per year” (Westra, Bosselmann, and Westra, 2008, 251). But the divertion of corn and food grains has affetced this export and this has been a loss for world food security scenario. In US, the decrease in availability of land for food grain production caused by increased corn cultivation will have an impact on the quality of land in the existing food grain production areas. There will be an increased pressure on whatever land is available for food production. The food prices will also go up. This will prompt the food grain producing farmers also to increase their yields by using more agricultural inputs. In this way, the food security issue caused by increasing corn cultivation will eventually affect the productivity and soil quality in food grain producing areas also. Policies and future The existing national bio-fuel policies and projects will need the usage of more water and will thus affect the country's water resources considerably (World Water Assessment Programme, 2009, 111). Corn-based ethanol production is targetted to be increased to 15 billion gallons in 2015 (Malcolm, 2010, 1). While discussing the energy versus environment conflict behind this issue, it has to be kept in mind that, “the bio-fuel conversion process generally requires high-quality water because the primary use for ethanol production is for cooling towers and boilers, and cleaner water transfers heat more efficiently and does less damage to this equipment” (Mittal, 2010, 15). All these negative impacts need to be addressed and this study will help assess the impacts on and land and water and suggest ways to lessen the impact. Methodology The methodology of this research will be based on qualitative research. Methodology is defined as “the philosophical stance or world view that underlies or informs a style of research” (Jupp, 2006, 175). Methodology, as a concept, comprises of the research tools and methods used in collecting and analyzing data (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008, 965). The absence of a methodology will put the research in a vulnerable position in which lot of guess work and subjective inferences can be alleged of. In order to meet the stated aims of this study, a qualitative approach will be used. Questions having a broad framework and giving space to elaborate answers are a key feature of this kind of research (May, 2002, 231). This research will undertake a qualitative analysis of 5 books published in the last 5 years 2006-2011, and also 5 current websites, which discuss the issue of the effects of corn and Ethanol on land and water in the Midwest United States. Data will be compiled from these 10 sources and a conclusion on the impact will be arrived at by making logical conclusions form these data. These data will be then projected into the next ten years so that a picture of the impact and its immediate future can be assessed. Conclusion The land and water of Mid-Western United States is already under a pathetic condition caused by corn and ethanol production. The bio-fuel policy of United States need to have a revamp in the backdrop of these environmental issues. The exact calculations of water use in corn and ethano production is yet to be made. It is in this context that Mittal has opined: Next generation feedstocks have not yet been grown on a commercial scale and therefore their actual effects on water resources are not fully known at this time. Water is also used in the process of converting feedstocks to biofuels, and while the efficiency of biorefineries producing corn ethanol has increased over time, the amount of water required for converting next generation feedstocks into biofuels is still not well known. Finally, experts generally agree that it will be important to take into account the regional variability of water resources when choosing which feedstocks to grow and how and where to expand their production in the United States. (Mittal, 2010.) Genetic engineering studies have been going on to develop corn varieties which are more water efficient (Schillinger, 2010, 34). Studies are also going on to make corn varieties more drought-resistant (Schillinger, 2010, 34). The most important point being made here is the caution that has to betaken while deciding where to grow feedstock as is mentioned above. The government will have to prepare a complete water-footprinting of corn as a crop and the cultivation of corn will have to be limited to such areas where water resources can balance the water needs. The impact studies on water and land will have to focus on the long-term impacts as well. The social aspects of the decline in land and water quality is also a crucial area that needs to be introspected. It is hoped that by increasing production efficiency of the land, and water use efficiency, US can continue to look up at corn and ethanol as an alternative energy source. Suggestions are being put forth to minimize land and water use: Alternative water sources, such as brackish water, may be viable for some aspects of the biofuel conversion process and can help reduce biorefineries' reliance on freshwater. However, the high cost of retrofitting plants to use these water sources may be a barrier, according to experts and officials. Finally, innovations--such as dry cooling systems and thermochemical processes--have the potential to reduce the amount of water used by biorefineries, but many of these innovations are currently not economically feasible or remain untested at the commercial scale (Mittal, 2010). The drycooling system and thermochemical process used for ethanol production are expected to become two major aspects of ethanol production in the future. In the thermochemical design, instead of corn, wood chips are used (Tomes and Lakshmanan, 2010, 53). The yield of ethanol is slightly higher for thermochemical process though the cost factor is high (Tomes and Lakshmanan, 2010, 58). Recycling of water after purification can be another option. Last but not least, the economics of ethanol use has to be reworked in comparison with the food security aspect. From this view point, the bio-fuel policy of US has to be re-drawn by giving attention to aletrnative fuels other than those produced form food grains. 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