Governance for Environmental Sustainability: Water Shortage in the ACT Australia - Literature review Example

Institution : xxxxxxxxxxx Title : xxxxxxxxxxx Tutor : xxxxxxxxxxx Course : xxxxxxxxxxx @2013 Introduction While sustainability among cities has been endorsed as an indispensable goal globally within various policy contexts, important questions regarding the level at which various cities and the local governments are capable of addressing sustainability challenges have often remained unanswered. Environmental decisions from the state, individuals and the civil societies have often involved questions regarding political legitimacy, economic efficiency, equity and environmental effectiveness. According to Adger et.al (2003), each of the above criterions is constitutive of social, economic as well as environmental sustainable development a dimension, which has turned out to be the main rhetorical device in environmental governance. Governance has turned out to be an important concern within numerous settings, including effective functioning within corporate boards, international/global relations, and the way societies ought to address various environmental issues. While Australian cities ought to maintain effective governance for sustainability, De Loë et.al (2009) argue that many perspectives relating to governance exist within academic literature, with each reflecting distinct disciplinary perspectives as well as the specific nature of a given concern. A particular area of concern where a different governance perspective exists is the environment. Environmental governance has thus come out to be described as not only the various processes but also the institutions under which decisions affecting environment are made within societies. This particular paper therefore intends to provide a state-of-the-art analysis on governance for environmental sustainability, with a primary focus on the issue of water shortage within the Australian Capital Territory. Issues Surrounding Water Shortage in the ACT Water shortage is regarded as a major concern within the major cities of Australia. Australia, as highly urbanized as it is (with 89% of its population dwelling in its cities and major towns), relies heavily on the finite water resources/supplies. The Australian Capital Territory in particular has experienced increased pressure on its water resources due to water scarcity, which is also worsened by water contamination. Water supplies are continuously being challenged owing to the long term dry conditions, the rising population and increased water demand (UN WATER, 2007). Climatic Changes Implications of the climatic change on urban water usage are regarded as one of the most critical issues facing this particular territory. The major climatic variables highlighted as significant with regards to their impacts on the demand for water within the Australian Capital Territory are the maximum and the minimum temperatures as well as rainfall. According to UN WATER (2007), the extremely variable climate is argued to be creating increasing variability in terms of flow rates, a factor argued to pose significant risks to the reliable water supplies for use within this particular territory. This particular territory obtains its supply of water from two catchment systems, Cotter River and Googong system. Source: ACTEW (2005) There is increasing evidence suggesting the human involvement in the recently witnessed temperature trends, with such increases being to a larger extent attributed to the increasing levels of concentration in atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions resulting from various human activities (UN, 2006). Rainfall has similarly changed with the changes differing in various Australian regions. While the summer-monsoon rainfall is argued to have increased within Australia’s Northwestern region, this has not been the case with the southern region where this particular territory is located as it has been argued to have even become drier. The Australian Capital Territory has been regarded as experiencing prolonged droughts which led to the mandatory introduction of the Temporary Water Restrictions Scheme since 2002.Rainfall decreases in this particular region has been attributed to changes in the land use, variability in climate and the increased levels of concentration in atmospheric greenhouse gas emission The Rising Population As highlighted by Martin (2012), human population within a region remains a major determinant factor in as far as water requirements within a particular region is concerned. This factor is actually even more significant in the ACT where most of the water consumption is directed to the urban areas. Despite it (water) being an essential resource in terms of socio-economic development and the maintenance of a healthy ecosystem within the ACT, the increasing population and consequent development are calling for increased allocations/provisions of this particular resource for domestic, agriculture and even for use within the industrial sector, a factor that is exerting pressure on this infinite resource leading to excessive pressure on natural environments as consequence. Consequently, water availability for the sustenance of the values and the benefits associated with the environment are being threatened. According to Martin (2012), as a territory known for its severe inherent water scarcity, the increasing population densities within this particular region converge with low fresh water availability. For instance, recognizing the natural water shortage within the inland Australia and the position of Canberra, a city found within the northern part of Australian Capital Territory as having one of the leading population centers on River Murrumbidgee, highlight the implications resulting from the increasing population, which have actually forced the Australian Capital Territory to put in place a legislation so as to ensure there is sustainable/responsible management of water resources. Water Supply/Demand Water supply, its demand, and drought are known to be prominent issues within the Australian Capital Territory. The hydrologic limit of the various supply systems within the Australian Capital Territory, conflicts over the sharing of water resources, as well as drought-induced shortages of water within Australian Capital Territory continue to be prominent conversation topics within the media, water science communities, environmental organizations and within public policy discussions. While the question whether the particular territory is indeed experiencing water crisis or not may be openly debated, there are growing concerns on the fact that provision of reliable water to a full range of the diverse users within the Australian Capital Territory, and especially during the drought periods, is becoming more and more difficult. Due to this, an increased recognition of the relevance of sustainable solutions allowing increased water accessibility has been witnessed within the Australian Capital Territory. Water supply and water demand (demographics factors) impact water management Source: Boberg (2005). Most of the time much water consumption is attributed to domestic consumption, however, domestic consumption of water only accounts for approximately 10% of the overall consumption. Industrial use of water has been regarded as doubling that of domestic water use where this accounts for approximately 20%. Agricultural activities within this particular region also consume a significant amount of the water resource. Water supply and demand are however modified by various intervening factors which are often neglected within the estimates of water management. The Problems in terms of Governance Structures The cumulative effects of various incremental developments often present major difficulties not only to the Australian government but also other governments globally. Well-intended and planned strategic approaches to water governance often fail either in part or even totally within Australia as a whole and the Australian Capital Territory in particular. In 1992, a joint state-federal agreement in Australia initiated various reforms of the state environmental policy/legislation, which preceded the well planned Council of Australian Governments Water Reform Framework 1994. This was basically an agreement to initiate comprehensive and inclusive water reforms targeting not only financial but also environmental issues. Australia’s Murray-Darling basin, its largest catchment area overlapping four states including the Australian Capital Territory, was later to elicit mixed concerns regarding the framework’s priorities. In the year 1995, the pressing problems associated with water degradation, land degradation and decline in widespread, vital environmental values within the Murray-Darling basin only resulted in the cap on the extraction of river water, despite the significance of ground water and surface water connection being clearly evident. This particular Cap, the Murray-Darling Basin Cap, was actually introduced in the year 1997 in an attempt to limit the water amount diverted for consumption and to encourage efficient use of such existing diversions with the ultimate goal of controlling the river health declines (Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2004) On top, the state governments, including the Capital Australia Territory’s state government, have been argued by Neville (2009) to have actually been extremely slow in the implementation of fundamental groundwater reforms that were added to this particular framework in 1996, with given important elements not implemented even after more than a decade. This delay, together with the states’ failure to implement their commitments to precautionary natural resource management, has definitely magnified economical as well as environmental crisis facing the particular basin. Such crisis seems likely to be worsened incase the current predictions in climatic changes eventuate. On the other hand, recent initiatives put forward by the national government have acknowledged the past procrastinations while also providing a new and promising administrative framework. This approach is however argued only to work with proper backing by the political intelligence, good-will, will-power, and cooperation/teamwork amongst the state premiers, factors which were previously absent. On the other hand, urban sustainability reports have been criticized for lacking regional perspective since they mostly list and present isolated changes, which are basically flow inputs and flow outputs at the urban boundary. When the changes are considered separate from bioregion, they do not reflect the significance that the urban policy has on the particular region hence might lead to unintended failure. One particular instance was in the case of the draft strategic plan designed for a town within The Australian Capital City. This plan just recognized a couple of sustainability issues, water and sewerage, within its sustainability section, highlighting that they were adequate for the city, both within and outside the city. It was assumed that the city would continuously turn the faucets and flush toilets perpetually. Shortly afterwards, the Australian Capital City experienced severe water shortages hence becoming draught affected and highlighting how lack of planning for secure and reliable water source was not that strategic. Value Conflict Value Conflict is another major challenge facing water governance in Australian Capital Territory. While Value conflict is often seen to trigger reforms on water governance, conflict itself assumes different forms. Whereas the popularized notion of conflict often centres on violence or warfare, water conflict is more non-violent and actually based on tensions and increased competition within societies. In the Australian Capital Territory, different actors have varying interests, which basically presents the idealized version of a symmetric and triangular interaction between state, market and civil society. Conflicts over water within ACT are often socio-environmental conflicts with the most overt conflicts being of a socio-environmental nature. The environmentalists within the Australian Capital Territory engage in disputes basing their argument on the fact that the natural asset (water,) also a wealth generator, is at stake (Miranda et al, 2011). To some individuals and companies (water companies), however, water is an economic good whereby freshwater is not only a finite resource, but also a vulnerable resource. Due to this, it is considered by this group to be having economic values in its competing uses hence must be recognized as another economic good. Humanitarian organizations serving within this region as well as some individuals within the society however condemn this emphasizing that clean water is basically a human right. This was particularly emphasized by the 28th July United Nations General Assembly declaration stating that clean, safe drinking water is a human right essential in enjoying life and other human rights (UNDP, 2006). Contested Knowledge There has been a broad consensus on representation of all the relevant/ affected interests being quite crucial. Within this particular perspective, processes are supposed to allow for the fair consideration of views from the wide range of participants, including the participant’s environmental condition views. The significance of engaging the communities through a collaborative process is therefore encouraged. However, the particular extent to which this process is appropriate in doing so has been contested due to lack of active participation by some involved parties. In the collaborative process, as highlighted by Taylor et al (2013) the parties involved should not merely offer information and opinions within arm’s length but instead participate directly in both discussions and the policy issues. Key Actors The Government Government as an actor within water governance plays a significant role of setting the legislative as well as the regulatory frameworks so that human health and environmental health, quality and higher service levels can be realized. Since the Australian Capital Territory was given power for self-government in 1988, it has been charged with the mandate of overseeing the management of water resources within this particular region, and especially the disposal and inflow of water within the Australian Territory Dams. The particular government also oversees the use of water resources within this particular region. Together with this government, the national government is able to manage the national water resources effectively besides playing the regulatory role and providing guidelines regarding the use and protection of the Australian water resources. Both the state and the federal governments are also involved in the provision of finances, undertaking various engineering works, and the overall maintenance and operation of the water infrastructure (Mollenkopf, 2009). The private Sector The private sector is also a major actor within this particular territory especially in view of the pricing of the scarce commodity. While playing a key role in matters regarding the distribution and utility of water resources, the private sector within the territory works together with the state government to ensure that harmony and effectiveness in water governance and distribution is achieved. According to Mollenkopf (2009) the past couple of decades have however seen an increase in the role of private sector in every aspect pertaining not only to servicing, but also infrastructure. This has largely been driven by the National Competition Policy of 1994 and other favourable factors. In the water sector, the overall service provision and the distribution-network ownership is in the hands of public instrumentalities. Behind it however, private participation has an extensive share although in various forms including partnering/alliance, contracted services, and franchising. Non-Governmental Organizations The local as well as international NGO communities are also significant actors within this particular territory. The international NGOs play a key role in the maintaining of water access throughout this region. Among the key roles of NGO communities is the effective response to problems as they arise, for instance monitoring of the issues arising from water scarcity and providing particular solutions to some of the issues. NGOS play the watchdog role of ensuring that the government utilities are honest and focuses on helping or serving individuals. Particular NGOs also focus on the disadvantaged population, thereby lobbying the government to offer such people a fair deal while others provide the basic services to the needy. Solution to the Governance Problem It is clearly evident that there exists numerous, acute challenges facing water governance and sustainable water management of the water resources within the Australian Capital Territory. Moreover, a variety of the challenges are actually intensified within the region due to high urbanization and heavy dependence on the resource industries within, which essentially increases complexities. Possibly, the fundamental issue relates to achieving sustainable extraction levels supporting competing demands especially witnessed in the growing population, support for communities and the industries, expansion of the new/existing industries, and meeting the critical ecological goals and objectives. Effective water governance is thus quite crucial in ensuring that the quality of water within the water ways is maintained and improved, there is reliability in long-term water supply, and efficiency in the system is achieved. According to ACT Natural Resource Management Council (2009), effective water governance calls for the development and implementation of the integrated regional approach focusing on effective water management (Lawrence, 2013). Clear links between the planning processes, the evaluation steps and the adaptive management are as well necessary. As such, an integrated, well-coordinated, and knowledge based approach to the care of the ACT’s natural water resources as well as urban and rural landscape is essential. This should however recognize the significance of social as well as economic development within the communities involved (Wallis, 2012). On the other hand, cooperation and collaboration between the state and the territory jurisdictions as well as between natural-resource management and planning interests are of great significance. Being intersectoral, response to the water scarcity needs collaboration, sharing of the joint visions and various policy principles, as well as joint actions to address the issue effectively. This will generally enhance water governance and result in planned and sustainable water supply. Conclusion Water governance, along with its associated reforms, has never been easy. It has either been seldomly or never accomplished without intense debates. Despite this, a clear fact is that addressing key issues in water scarcity calls for actions at the local level, regional level, national level, and the river-basin level. This also requires actions at the global and the international level resulting in more collaboration between countries on the shared water resource management and the associated benefits. Being intersectoral, response to the water scarcity needs collaboration, sharing of the joint visions and various policy principles, as well as joint actions to address the issue effectively. References Adger, W.et.al, 2003, "Governance for Sustainability: Towards A 'Thick' Analysis of Environmental Decision-Making" Environment and Planning, 35(6) 1095 – 1110. ACT Natural Resource Management Council, 2009, Plan For Managing the Natural Resources of the ACT: Bush Capital Legacy, Natural Resource Management. ACTEW, 2005, Future Water Options for the ACT Region: Implementation Plan: A Recommended Strategy to Increase the ACT's Water Supply. Boberg, J., 2005, How Demographic Changes and Water Management Policies Affect Freshwater Resources, California: RAND Corporation. De Loë, R.et.al, 2009, From Government to Governance: a State-of-the-Art Review of Environmental Governance, Rob de Loë Consulting Services Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2004, Integrated Water Resource Management in Australia. Case Studies Lawrence, D, 2013, Impact Assessment: Practical Solutions to Recurrent Problems and Contemporary Challenges, John Wiley & Sons Miranda, L. et al, 2011, Water Governance Key Approaches: An Analytical Framework, Change Sustenance Martin, P, Li, Z & Qin, T, 2012, Environmental Governance and Sustainability: IUCN Academy of Environmental Law series, Edward Elgar Publishing Mollenkopf, T., 2009, Meeting Australia’s Water Infrastructure Needs: Public Private Collaboration Models. AWA Australian Business Forum Singapore International Neville, J., 2009, Policy Without Action: Groundwater Reform In The Murray-Darling Basin.OnlyOnePlanet Consulting Taylor, B.; de Loë, R. & Bjornlund, H. 2012. Evaluating Knowledge Production in Collaborative Water Governance. Water Alternatives 6(1): 42-66 Tanik, A., 2013, Searching Solutions to Water Issues: Water Governance. Istanbul Technical University UN Water, 2007, Coping With Water Scarcity: Challenge of the 21st Century UNDP, 2006, Human Development Report 2006. Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty And The Global Water Crisis. United Nations Development Programme, New York UN, 2006, Water, A Shared Responsibility. The United Nations World Water Development Report - 2. UNESCO and Berghahn Books, Paris and London Wallis, P. et al, 2012, Water Governance Research for Transformation, Water Governance Research Initiative Read More

ainfall decreases in this particular region has been attributed to changes in the land use, variability in climate and the increased levels of concentration in atmospheric greenhouse gas emission The Rising Population As highlighted by Martin (2012), human population within a region remains a major determinant factor in as far as water requirements within a particular region is concerned. This factor is actually even more significant in the ACT where most of the water consumption is directed to the urban areas.

Despite it (water) being an essential resource in terms of socio-economic development and the maintenance of a healthy ecosystem within the ACT, the increasing population and consequent development are calling for increased allocations/provisions of this particular resource for domestic, agriculture and even for use within the industrial sector, a factor that is exerting pressure on this infinite resource leading to excessive pressure on natural environments as consequence. Consequently, water availability for the sustenance of the values and the benefits associated with the environment are being threatened.

According to Martin (2012), as a territory known for its severe inherent water scarcity, the increasing population densities within this particular region converge with low fresh water availability. For instance, recognizing the natural water shortage within the inland Australia and the position of Canberra, a city found within the northern part of Australian Capital Territory as having one of the leading population centers on River Murrumbidgee, highlight the implications resulting from the increasing population, which have actually forced the Australian Capital Territory to put in place a legislation so as to ensure there is sustainable/responsible management of water resources.

Water Supply/Demand Water supply, its demand, and drought are known to be prominent issues within the Australian Capital Territory. The hydrologic limit of the various supply systems within the Australian Capital Territory, conflicts over the sharing of water resources, as well as drought-induced shortages of water within Australian Capital Territory continue to be prominent conversation topics within the media, water science communities, environmental organizations and within public policy discussions.

While the question whether the particular territory is indeed experiencing water crisis or not may be openly debated, there are growing concerns on the fact that provision of reliable water to a full range of the diverse users within the Australian Capital Territory, and especially during the drought periods, is becoming more and more difficult. Due to this, an increased recognition of the relevance of sustainable solutions allowing increased water accessibility has been witnessed within the Australian Capital Territory.

Water supply and water demand (demographics factors) impact water management Source: Boberg (2005). Most of the time much water consumption is attributed to domestic consumption, however, domestic consumption of water only accounts for approximately 10% of the overall consumption. Industrial use of water has been regarded as doubling that of domestic water use where this accounts for approximately 20%. Agricultural activities within this particular region also consume a significant amount of the water resource.

Water supply and demand are however modified by various intervening factors which are often neglected within the estimates of water management. The Problems in terms of Governance Structures The cumulative effects of various incremental developments often present major difficulties not only to the Australian government but also other governments globally. Well-intended and planned strategic approaches to water governance often fail either in part or even totally within Australia as a whole and the Australian Capital Territory in particular.

In 1992, a joint state-federal agreement in Australia initiated various reforms of the state environmental policy/legislation, which preceded the well planned Council of Australian Governments Water Reform Framework 1994.

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