Significance of Riparian Zones - Literature review Example

Heading: Environmental Science Your name: Course name: Professors’ name: Date Part 1 (Significance of riparian zones) Introduction Ever since the beginning of agricultural activities, riparian areas have constantly degraded. For instance, in United States, half of these zones and wetlands are destroyed. Consequently, there are a number of problems that have resulted in complete or partial damage of immediate stream surroundings, and destruction of strength of zones downstream. Therefore, this paper focuses on significance of riparian areas on rivers, as well as the effect of maintaining healthy riparian zones by offsetting catchment land-uses like urbanization and agriculture. What are riparian zones? Ranalli and Macalady (2010, pp. 406-415) refer to them as transition areas between water and land environments. They entail thin land strips that are located along lakes, coulees, springs, wooded draws, or any other place plentiful of water. The plant communities and large quantity of water that is distinct from drier uplands separates riparian zones from their environments. Milner et al. (2007, pp. 237-245) point out that riparian zones are valuable and productive reserve that provide many social, environmental and economic benefits. Significance of riparian zones to rivers Boon and Raven (2012, pp.7-20) maintain that riparian and streams areas offer livestock forage, wildlife and fish habitat, water, and recreational opportunities. A healthy riparian zone can do many functions, such as, production of primary vegetation; protection of stream-banks from erosion; promotion of absorption and storage of water; trapping of stream-born sediments; regulation of stream-flow; and recharge of groundwater. 1. Protection and development of stream-bank One of the most important benefits of riparian zones is the safeguarding and development of a stream-bank from erosion. Whereas people usually view erosion in terms of toxic waste and chemicals, sediment pollution is a great and crucial problem. Erosion entails a natural process, but is aggravated by both indirect and direct human activities. Siltation and sedimentation will influence the stream-bank geomorphology in the surrounding area, and ecology downstream and water chemistry (Sponseller, Benfield & Valett, 2001, pp. 1409-1425). Riparian zones are beneficial to rivers in that they protect it from sediment pollution. Because these zones are densely populated by plants, the intricate root system aids in the stabilization and prevention of erosion (Apostol & Sinclair, 2006, pp. 130-140). Explicitly, Bennett and Simon (2004, pp. 1-10) maintain that riparian vegetation is influential in safeguarding of shorelines from being damaged by soil erosion that results from movement of water downstream, particularly whenever there are heavy flows relating to downpours or spring runoff. Friction amid water and plants slows down stream-flow; hence, reducing the water’s capacity to erode and transport sediments. According to Dodds (2010, pp. 12-25), soil is held in place by deep and binding root collection; hence making the streamline to be stable. Additionally, Naiman (2005, pp. 159-170) argues that a healthy riparian zone allows floodwaters to come and spread out above a wide flood plain, and thus, minimizing water energy. As the stream-flow slows down, there is a deposition of suspended sediments on floodplains and stream-banks. This is beneficial in the building up of banks and the eventual creation of rich floodplains, and narrow and deep stream channels. Regulation of stream-flow and groundwater recharge Dodds (2010, pp. 12-25) asserts that riparian zones are advantageous to rivers because they facilitate effective recharge of groundwater, as well as regulation of stream-flow. Water flow is significantly slowed down when spring run-off is moving through well-vegetated and meandering stream. Cummins, Wilzbach, Gates, Perry and Taliaferro (1989, pp. 24-30) note that the reduced flow of stream-flow increases water absorption in the soil; hence, replenishing groundwater stores and decreasing the flooding intensity in downstream zones. Additionally, Ranalli and Macalady (2010, pp. 406-415) say that the silty textured soils help in recharging underground water reserves by acting as sponge. After a considerable period of time, water is released from springs and seeps into streams. As a result, this helps in the maintenance of stream-flow all through the season. 2. Trapping and filtration of sediments Naiman (2005, pp. 159-170) holds that riparian zones are influential in maintaining clean water in rivers. Often, water flowing form adjacent fields carry fertilizers and pesticide residues that stick to soil particles, or get dissolved in water. Above, vegetation cover acts a filter so as to stop any pollutants and sediments, which is found in run-off. Besides, Silk and Ciruna (2005, pp. 352-360) posit that the root system facilitates the interception of the underground translocation of fertilizer and pesticide residues originating from cultivated uplands. Upon destruction of riparian vegetation, these particles can easily reach wetlands and streams because there is nothing to bar or filter them; hence making river water dirty. Furthermore, the erosion of shorelines and stream-banks after reduction of vegetation cover contributes to the sedimentation of river water (Goudie, 2004, pp. 857-865). It is worth noting that these when these sediments are deposited in lakes and stream beds, they minimize the quality of habitat of aquatic organisms, such as, fish (Milner et al., 2007, pp. 237-245). Plants found in riparian zones are known to utilize nutrients within run-off to enhance their growth. Utilization of some of these nutrients is beneficial in slowing down their build-up in reduces and water the occurrence of intense algal blooms (Dodds, 2010, pp. 12-25). Certain varieties of algae like blue-green are toxic. Therefore, if water is highly concentrated with these algae, pets and livestock can be killed. Moreover, algae blooms are responsible for the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water when they die and decay. Gurnell, Tockener, Edwards and Petts (2005, pp. 377-3820) say that, at times, they can lead to extensive loss of fish during winter season; when streams and lakes are covered by ice. If well maintained, stream-bank vegetation gives shade that keeps water cool in summer. Cooler water is essential in that it contains more oxygen that is highly indispensable for aquatic life. 3. Riparian vegetation As put by Silk and Ciruna (2005, pp. 352-360), vegetation is vital in performing most of the functions conducted by riparian zones. Lack of vegetation makes streams less different form drainage ditch. Effective management of riparian areas entails the maintenance and improvement of desirable riparian vegetation. Since riparian zones are transition areas between wetlands and uplands, the areas close to water contain more humidity than areas distant from the water (Gurnell, Tockener, Edwards & Petts, 2005, pp. 377-382). This usually produces belts or zones of vegetation types, which parallel water. At the waters periphery, deep-rooted rushes and sedges makes the stream-bank stable. Gregory et al. (1991, pp. 540-541) holds that lightly back, moisture-loving grasses and shrubs, as well as broad-leaved plants (forbs) are found. In the majority of places, Ranalli and Macalady (2010, pp. 406-415) posit that willows are likely the most important and common of the wooded plant species that offer stream-banks significant resistance to soil erosion. The trees achieve this by use of their widespread roots, whereas also building up riverbanks through trapping sediments. Part 2 Effects of healthy riparian zones Native vegetation In various areas of prairies, riparian vegetation has been destroyed by the introduction other species, such as, Quackgrass, Bromegrass, Canada thistle, Kentucky bluegrass, and purple loosestrife. Overgrazing, cultivation and livestock trampling are responsible for the disturbance of soil and permission of exotic species to achieve a foothold (Baxter, Fausch, & Saunders, 2005, pp. 201-220). Whereas some of these indigenous species can perform certain functions like indigenous species, such, forage provision or soil stabilization, their existence can demonstrate other problems. For instance, Kentucky bluegrass offers livestock cover and forage, but has a restricted value in the control of stream-bank erosion dues to its superficial root system (Silk & Ciruna, 2005, pp. 352-360). Home for fish and wildlife If well maintained and managed, riparian zones can continue to offer suitable habitat for wildlife and fish. Since there is an abundance of shelter, water and food, these areas are highly indispensable and attractive to all kinds of wildlife (Silk & Ciruna, 2005, pp. 352-360). A majority of birds and animals that live on these zones utilize the areas well. In heavily cultivated landscapes, riparian areas are usually the only significant wildlife environment remaining. Destruction of riparian zone vegetation by cultivation, grazing, and clearing may devastate animal and bird populations (Ranalli & Macalady, 2010, pp. 406-415). Benefits agricultural activities According to Baxter, Fausch and Saunders (2005, pp. 201-220), when riparian zones are well maintained and managed, they can offer numerous advantages to agriculture. Riparian zones are instrumental in the production of forage and supply of water in pasture. If properly managed, the zones will give precious livestock grazing, and act as assets to any type of livestock activity. Managed, controlled livestock grazing could uphold and enhance forage fields and protect riparian zones. Numerous floodplains are very rich and have been cultivated. In places where most of the land is under cultivation, valleys along rivers and wetlands that cannot be cultivated have usually been regarded as wasteland. Nitrogen and Phosphorous Pollution Phosphorus and nitrogen are often the limiting factors in the basic growth of stream-bank vegetation. Nonetheless, too much of these elements may have detrimental effects on the stream. In large amounts, the elements are known to be toxic (Baxter, Fausch & Saunders, 2005, pp. 201-220). It is imperative, thus, that equilibrium is upheld so as to allow amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen that maintain the stream’s health. A stream with riparian zone can maintain more natural inputs of phosphorus and nitrogen in the stream. Riparian area plants achieve this by denitrifying bacteria on their roots’ rhizomes. The denitrification process outputs are generally harmless; hence, allowing excess nitrogen to get into the atmosphere, or be utilized by the riparian vegetation, instead of entering the stream. This is particularly vital when large amounts of undesirable nitrogen are transported in agricultural field’s run-off. In terms of phosphorus, riparian vegetation impounds the nutrients in their vascular tissue, or roots; hence, regulating its entrance to the river water (Wiens, 2002, pp. 501-515). Controlling Floods If maintained and managed well, riparian areas and wetlands serve as shield against floods. In addition to slowing down run-off that gets into a river, and reducing the stream’s flow velocity, these areas play a role of soaking up surplus water through roots; hence, controlling floods (Baxter, Fausch & Saunders, 2005, pp. 201-220). Even though floods are essential for the diversity of life in riparian zones and floodplains, a river with mature riparian area is instrumental in the control of floods; thus, maintaining it at reasonable degrees that aid in stimulating growth. Conclusion Riparian zones are very beneficial to rivers in a number of ways that are both physical and biological. Some of the benefits include protection and development of stream-bank; regulation of stream-flow and groundwater recharge; trapping and filtration of sediments; and contains riparian native vegetation. Therefore, these zones and wetlands ought to be well maintained and managed so as to reap its numerous benefits. If human activities like urbanization and agricultural activities are offset, healthy riparian zones will act as food web and habitat; regulate phosphorus and nitrogen; control floods; offers native vegetation; habitat for wild and fish; and enhance agricultural activities. Part 2 (Sustainability and Environmental Action) Introduction Today, the world is striving to conserve the environment at all costs because of its numerous benefits. There are a number of international and national agencies and organizations that have taken the initiative of educating the world on environmental developmental and sustainability issues through various programs. This paper aims at evaluating one of the education sustainability education programs in Australia; The Australia: Sustainability and Environmental Action. The essay attempts to analyze the programs with reference to its rationale and structure. This is done in light of the Tbilisi Declaration of 1977 that is in terms of its objectives, aims, mission, and how it works towards the achievement of its objectives. Lastly, it seeks to provide further recommendations on what should be done in order to enhance its performance. Tbilisi Declaration 1977 Newman (2011, pp. 355-365) notes that Tbilisi declaration was approved by acclamation at the end of the intergovernmental conference concerning environmental education, which was arranged by United Nations environmental Program (UNEP) and United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The conference took place in Tbilisi, Georgia form October, 1977. The declaration comprises of framework, guidelines and principles for environmental educations at regional, local, and international levels, and everyone in and out of formal education system. Just like any other program, Tbilisi has an outline of objectives, roles, and characteristics. The Australia: Sustainability and Environmental Action This is a program that is tailor-made to empower students in the process of making a positive involvement in the development of more sustainable societies. Through this program, students are allowed an opportunity to acquire vital knowledge essential in making informed decisions as regards environmental matters. Moreover, it enables students to learn appropriate ways of utilizing sustainability principles both in their private lives and their preferred careers form fine arts to accounting (Robertson, 2012, pp. 125-140). Additionally, Jeucken (2004, pp. 85-100) holds that the program is funded on the philosophy that says that environmental matters like international climate change are significant in the present world that all students, regardless o major, ought to be ecologically knowledgeable. This program allows students from distinct fields like business, anthropology, sociology, political science and fine arts, who are inspired by their belief to bring a change, and by environmental problems. Besides, the program entails many workshops and field excursions with top practitioners. Most of the learning is done in remote places, onsite continuous housing projects, and national parks. It also takes a week on sparsely populated and beautiful island of Tasmania. In addition, Robertson (2012, pp. 125-140) maintains that students are allowed to take a camping journey with Aboriginal elders. The difference between this program and others is its emphasis on environmental action and policy, while other focus on natural ecology. According to this program, there are hardly any areas on earth in which environment has had a more powerful influence on both contemporary and indigenous communities than in Australia. This is because, the country has a climate regulated by El Nino, instead of seasons; has a geological history that lacks volcanism or extensive glaciations caused by poor soils; a exclusive collection of plants and marsupials that originate from Gondwana; a human population expanding back between 50, 000 and 75,000 years; and two centuries of social and ecological disturbance caused by continent’s settlement by English people. Following these features, Jeucken (2004, pp. 85-100) says that the country has suffered adverse effects from worldwide climate change prior to other industrialized countries, and thus, environmental challenges have higher profile compared to United States. Australian social, economic, and political arrangements are the same as the US, which experience numerous of the similar sustainability matters, and solutions are always pertinent to both countries. Therefore, the program enables students to learn their country’s prosperity can be used in public policy, and in their communities and personal lives. In relation to the Tbilisi Declaration 1977, the program has its objectives, roles and structure. To start with, Andrzejewski (2009, pp. 18-25) says that the program aims at identifying, assessing, and controlling our effect on the environment. Secondly, integrating environmental sustainability into their decision making and business processes, customer service and the way they manage the business. Thirdly, the program aims at supporting employee, customers, and communities within which they work especially school relationships and their workforce clients. As per the Tbilisi declaration, the program attempts to uphold knowledge by helping individuals and social groups to acquire different experiences in, and obtain a primary comprehension of, the environment, and its related challenges. Additionally, Newman (2011, pp. 355-365) asserts that the program meets the Tbilisi declaration objectives in that it promotes attitude by aiding individuals and social groups to obtain a set of values and concern feelings for the environment, and inspiration for actively engaging in environmental enhancement and protection. It also facilitates awareness by enabling individuals and groups to develop sensitivity and awareness to whole environment and its associated challenges. What is more, Dietz (2002, pp. 148-152) argues that the program intends to instill skills by enabling individuals and social groups to attain skills necessary in the identification and solving of environmental challenges. It also promotes participation by providing individuals and social groups with a chance to actively take part at all levels in the resolution of environmental challenges. In addition, the program has been designed to meet the Tbilisi declaration guidelines to environmental education programs. Newman (2011, pp. 355-365) maintains that one of these guidelines involves the consideration of the whole environment; in terms of its political, economic, social, cultural-historical, esthetic, and ethical issues. It also involves the examination of key environmental matters from national, local, international, and regional perspectives so that students can obtain insights into ecological situations in various geographical locations. The program has an interdisciplinary approach since it draws particular content of every field so as to make a balanced and holistic perspective (Dietz, 2002, pp. 148-152). Andrzejewski (2009, pp. 18-25) notes that the program is also effective in that it relates environmental knowledge, sensitivity, values, and problem-solving skills. It also utilizes different learning environments and a wide array of academic approaches to learning, teaching about environment with emphasis on first-hand experience and practical actions. Additionally, Dietz (2002, pp. 148-152) says that the plan focuses on the complexity of environment challenges, and hence, the need to build critical problem-solving and thinking skills. The program’s effectiveness is also demonstrates by its determination to focus on the present and possible environmental conditions while considering the prevention and solution of the challenges. Besides, it takes into account environmental aspects in planning for growth and development. It is also designed as a lifelong process that starts from preschool to higher non-formal and formal stages. Conclusion/ Recommendations The program is effective in that it meets all the requirements of the Tbilisi declaration in 1977 in terms of guidelines, structure, and objectives. Some of its objectives include promotion of attitudes, awareness, skills, knowledge and participation. The program ought to align its objectives with the national sustainability action plan. This implies that it should foster sustainability in industry and business so as to develop a capacity for sustainability that helps in enhancing practitioners and community’s access to tools and knowledge; and control change incentives like cost savings, enhanced efficiencies, corporate image, and staff retention and morale. It should also harness society spirit to take part in the provision of environment education, as well as supporting research to understand matters behavior and attitudes. It should also reorient education systems to fit sustainability so as to attain sustainability culture that allows reinforcement of learning and teaching by constant enhancement of sustainability of university management. In addition, the programs should demonstrate Australian government leadership by strengthening the government’s role in providing sustainability education as a role model (Department of Environment, 2004, pp. 6-18). References Andrzejewski, J. (2009). Social justice, peace, and environmental education: transformative standards. New York: Routledge. Pp. 82-85. Apostol, D. & Sinclair, M. (2006). Restoring the Pacific Northwest: the art and science of ecological restoration in Cascadia. Washington, DC: Island Press. Pp. 130-140. Baxter, C.V., Fausch, K.D. & Saunders, W. C. (2005). Tangled webs: reciprocal flows of invertebrate prey link streams and riparian zones. Freshwater Biology, 50(2):201-220. Bennett, S.J. & Simon, A. (2004). Riparian vegetation and fluvial geomorphology. Washington, D.C: American Geophysical Union. Pp. 1-10. Boon, P. & Raven, P. (2012). River conservation and management. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 7-20. Cummins, K.W., Wilzbach, M.A., Gates, D.M, Perry, J.B. & Taliaferro, W. B. (1989). Shredders and riparian vegetation. Bioscience, 39 (2): 24-30 Department of Environment (2004). Environmental Education Strategy and Action Plan. Government of Western Australia. Pp. 6-18. Dietz, T. (2002). New tools for environmental protection: education, information, and voluntary measures. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Pp.148-154. Dodds, W. (2010). Freshwater ecology: concepts and environmental applications of limnology. Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Pp. 12-25. Goudie, A. (2004). Encyclopedia of geomorphology. London New York, NY: Routledge International Association of Geomorphologists. Pp. 857-865. Gregory, S.V. et al (1991). An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. Bioscience 41 (5):540- 551 Gurnell A., Tockener, K., Edwards P., & Petts, G. (2005). Effects of deposited wood on biocomplexity of river corridors. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(1): 377–382. Jeucken, M. (2004). Sustainability in finance: banking on the planet. Delft, UK: Eburon. Pp. 85- 100. Milner, A.M., et al. (2007). Interactions and Linkages among Ecosystems during Landscape Evolution. Bioscience, 57 (3): 237-245. Naiman, R. (2005). Riparia: ecology, conservation, and management of streamside communities. Amsterdam Boston, CA: Elsevier Academic. Pp.159-170. Newman, J. (2011). Green education: an A-to-Z guide. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Pp. 355-365. Ranalli, A.J. & Macalady, D.L. (2010). The importance of the riparian zone and in-stream processes in nitrate attenuation in undisturbed and agricultural watersheds – A review of the scientific literature. Journal of Hydrology, 389 (3): 406–415 Robertson, M. (2012). Schooling for sustainable development a focus on Australia, New Zealand, and the Oceanic Region. Dordrecht New York, NY: Springer. Pp. 125-140. Silk, N. &Ciruna, K. (2005). A practitioner's guide to freshwater biodiversity conservation. Washington, DC: Island Press. Pp. 352-360. Sponseller, R.A, Benfield, E.F. & Valett, H. M. (2001). Relationships between land use, spatial scale and stream macro-invertebrate communities. Freshwater Biology, 46 (2): 1409- 1424. Wiens, J. A. (2002). Riverine landscapes: taking landscape ecology into the water. Freshwater Biology 47 (3):501-515. Read More