Urban Water Demand - Report Example

Urban Water Demand (Comparison) Student’s Name Course Title Instructor’s Name Date of Submission Introduction One of the major challenges in the major cities all over the world is the water demand and supply issue (Mitchell, 2012, p. 01). There are different perspectives from which the use of water in different countries’ urban centres can be analysed. From the demand point of view, it appears that most of the world’s nations have not reached the optimal levels of water supply that would successfully meet the yearly demands. There are factors that play a significant role in determining the levels of water demand in these countries. Among these factors are natural determinants such as weather patterns, industrial developments, population structures and availability of well-managed water management companies in addition to other major factors. In this research report, a comparative analysis into water demand in selected countries in the world is conducted, with statistical explanations provided at some instances. Urban Water Demand in Selected Countries of the World Urban Water Demand in China Urban population in China, from 1990-2005, hiked from 254 million people to almost 572 million (DOW, 2011, p. 01). This was according to population research carried out in the year 2005. In McKinsey’s research of 2005, it was forecasted that this country would have 15 cities with populations of over 10 million, 11 cities with approximated populations of between 25-35 million people by the year 2025 (DOW, 2011, 02). In the same speculations, Shanghai would be as large as the total population of Spain. The reason behind China’s increased population is attributed to the availability of a stable government committed to ensuring that the people’s welfare is well taken care of. In addition, the abundance of social amenities and land for expansion also facilitates this constant rise in population. However, despite the positivity towards population increase, it has been found out that more than 300 million Chinese have little or no access at all to sufficient water. This comes despite the fact that China has more than 6% of the world’s largest water resources. The population exceeds the available water resources and effective allocation of these resources has been one of the government’s greatest challenges over the years. The United Nations ranks China among the world’s top 13 countries that have urban water shortages. Though the country has some of the world’s largest water resources, most of them are not evenly distributed over the land. From national surveys, the north and northeast Chinese region holds only 5% of the country’s water resources. This is quite ironical since these regions cater for over 40% of China’s total population. The water required for industrial use all over China is projected to move to 265 billion cubic metres by 2030. This accounts for nearly 40% of global industrial water demand. In the domestic sector, especially from the urban regions, the demand for water is expected to reduce from today’s 14% to 12% in the year 2030 (DOW, 2011, p. 04). In the urban agricultural sector, the efficiency of water management is projected to improve by 1% in both rain-supplied and irrigated lands. The government of China has been on the ground in expanding the water resource to meet the demands of the rising population. From 2007-2008, the net water resources in China increased by 7.7% and average natural precipitation recorded an increase of 6%, placing the annual average precipitation at 646.4mm. A breakdown into China’s water resources and their overall capacities can be represented using the chart below (DOW, 2011, p. 02). From the above illustration, it is evident that China’s largest source of water is the natural ground water resources. It is from the renewable resources that nearly half of the country’s urban population gets the water from. This applies for both domestic and industrial uses. From the urban perspective, it is notable that China’s cities account for 58.9% of the country’s domestic water demand. The remaining 41% is attributable to counties’ demand for water in the country. In comparison to 2007 statistics, the agricultural, industrial, domestic and environmental replenishment water use rose by 2.1 km3 in the year 2008. This has been rising steadily over the years. The percentage has never been the same for any two consecutive years. The annual demand for water in China from the urban sector is mainly represented by industrial uses, domestic uses, replenishment, and agricultural purposes. The annual demand for urban water use, as per the 2008 statistical reports indicated a break-down as illustrated below (DOW, 2011, p. 02). From the statistical values, it emerges that China’s population is mainly supported by their agricultural activities that call for water demand of up to 62.1% of the nation’s total urban water demand. China has taken several steps ahead towards creating more water resources. These efforts started even before the population burst that is now becoming a challenge. In the 1999s, for example, China adopted the public-private partnership (PPP) to put up more water plants to support the existing population and also for the growing industrial revolution. The urban sector in China is occupied by different industries that require a lot of water. For example, China is the biggest paper manufacturer in the world. By the year 2012, there were over 3500 paper-manufacturing companies located in China, all producing in large scale. There are thirteen provinces located in China each producing at least 1 million tons of paper and paper products. This accounts for over 91% of China’s total paper production. The paper output in China is projected to expand to 100 million tons by the year 2020. This will call for a high demand in the rate of water demand by the time this vision is accomplished. In addition to the paper plants, the other sector that uses a lot of water from the industrial China is the Chemicals’ industry. China is known for production and exportation of a variety of chemicals. There are over 21, 000 chemical manufacturing plants located in China’s urban centres. Each of these manufacturers requires enough water to mix their reagents and carry out analyses in the production processes. In a bid to reduce the overall production costs, the government located nearly half of these chemical producing plants along the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. This industry was celebrated due to its huge contributions on the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As a result of the high water demand in China, there are strategies that the government has put in place as well as suitable objectives to be achieved in line with water supply. China strives to achieve up to 95% of urban total water supply to the convenience of all the sectors that are involved in production and also for domestic purposes. In addition, the country has projected addition of 40 million m3/d; to the overall water supply capacity. Other strategies that are now being invested on in the urban regions are water re-use and recycling within the industries, wastewater treatment, water harvesting in areas with favourable climate and seawater desalination. The urban sector also seeks to reduce the amount of electricity that is produced from water resources. In the process of reducing its total hydro-electric power, China will utilize these water resources for other uses. There is also the need to seek for a balance between water use in the urban and the rural areas. Diversification of the water resources with respect to the country’s urban population will only be achieved if a balance is created in strategic establishment of the new projected water resources. Urban Water Demand in Australia Australia is not left out when it comes to the challenge of water scarcity in the major cities in the developed and developing nations. Australia’s cities face a serious challenge due to water scarcity. From past research, it has been found out that up to 89% of Australia’s population resides in the urban areas. This leaves rural population with 11% or less of the overall country’s population. Most of the urban areas draw heavily on finite water supply. Despite the expected population growth that is likely to be realized in the years to come, the government of Australia faces challenges in line with allocation of these water resources due to the ever-growing demand for water by the rising population. A break-down into the country’s water demand as illustrated by the 2008-09 findings are represented in the graphical illustration below (Brent & Henry, 2011, p. 01). Just like in the case of China, the agricultural sector uses more than half of the water that is available in Australia. Water resources in Australia are most abundant in places that are sparsely populated. For example, Tasmania and the regions that are located tro the North of the Tropic of Capricon receice precipitation in excess of 50% of the nation’s divertible water. This has posed challenges in distribution of the water resources evenly across the country. Comparatively, nearly 65% of the country’s population is located in the coastal regions of Victoria, New South Wales and Queens land. In total, these regions receive less than 23% of the total country’s rainfall. With a projected climate change that is likely to reduce the overall water supply in the country, urban water management is of importance to Australia. Household water demand in Australian urban centres is up to 12.5 % of the total annual urban water demand. Ninety-three per cent of Australians in the urban areas have access to reticulated water and nearly ninety per cent have access to reticulated sewage. In terms of Giga-litres, the overall water demand by households in the year 2008-09 was recorded as shown in the listed values below. Region Household Water Demand (Giga-litres) New South Wales 536 Victoria 342 Western Australia 326 Queensland 308 Northern Territory 154 South Australia 122 Tasmania 69 Australian Capital Territory 27 The statistical values depict the population patterns across the cities of Australia from the water demand values. The largest populated areas automatically demand for more water consumption compared to the sparsely populated regions. Over the next 40 years, from the year 2008, the country’s urban water use was projected to shift to higher values, despite the limited water resources and the current water challenges that they are facing. The predictions are based on the Australia’s Bureau of Statistics and have been revised in relation to the expected population increase that is likely to be experienced in the country. Under the predictions represented by the graph below in the representations made by A, B and C, the population of Australia is expected to rise by 45.5, 35.5 and 31 million respectively. Commensurately, these population patterns will call for increased water demand per annum in Australia to 1, 612 Gl, 1,472 Gl and 961 Gl respectively for each of the three scenarios by the year 2056 (Brent & Henry, 2011, p. 02). From the values represented in the graph above, it is evident that Australia’s urban areas will continue to experience challenges with the water demand and supply systems (White et. al, p. 10). The government figures represented in the graph show that there have to be measures to increase water supply and also control urban population in the country. Water demand and supply management in Australia is one of the most seriously undertaken steps towards ensuring that the entire population is well-supplied with water to meet the projected demands. Harvesting rainwater, storm water and recycling household water for uses in areas such as toilet flushing and garden watering are some of the major initiatives that the urban councils are taking on. The government has projected that these initiatives are likely to reduce water use by 50% of the current water use in the country. In the year 2004, there was an agreement made by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) on the national water initiative (Brent & Henry, 2011, p. 04). This agreement acted as a blueprint for water reforms. The objective of this initiative was to improve water planning and control effective water allocation across the country. The urban areas were the main points of concern since they carry more than half of the country’s population. The initial program was to carry out analysis on the average water demand per household and then come up with an appropriate strategy to balance water use among these households. Despite the fact that not all these objectives were realized COAG made a substantial improvement in the state of water crisis in the urban areas of Australia. Australia still experiences a rise in water demand from its urban areas and this is still expected to increase over the years. In addition, the country’s population keeps rising and more industrial areas are coming up. The demand for water has been a yearly challenge to the central government and the city councils. Due to the projected values represented in the above graph, the country is expected to develop more alternatives into effective management of its urban water resources and regulate the pressure created by the urban population (Australian Government, 2011, p. 63). Urban Water Demand in England and Wales The high population in England and Wales requires that water supply be abundant in the entire region. In addition, industrial operations have called for constant water supply in the urban regions of England. From demographic findings, the average water resources available per person in either Wales or England, is lower compared to other Mediterranean countries. In some parts of England the total water demand exceeds the supply that is available from most of the water resources. Though the situation is not acute as in the two cases of China and Australia, England has not managed to reach the optimal levels of water supply to effectively meet the available demand. The major initiatives that have been taken by England to ensure that water is effectively managed to suit the available population is through demand reduction and supply increase. There are three major regulations that have been developed in order to reduce the level of water demanded both for industrial and domestic use. To begin with, building regulations have been enacted in the major cities in England (Postnote, 2012, p. 04). There is a limit to the number of structures that can be put up in a given land space. This is aimed at reserving more water catchment zones to ensure that the supply of water does not fall below the expected demand over the coming years. The second initiative is the retrofitting of water efficiency products. This has mainly been enacted to the manufacturing companies. Due to the water challenges that are experienced in the urban regions of England and Wales, this policy is aimed at ensuring that the least possible amount of water is used for industrial operations. In England and Wales, the manufacturing industries consume the largest amounts of urban water as compared to the cases of China and Australia where the agricultural sector demand exceeds half of the total water demand in the urban areas. In addition, the two countries have also come up with the policy of universal water mattering of domestic properties. At the moment, water companies are only placed at a position of metering customers under specific circumstances. For instance, it is only in a confirmed case of water scarcity that a company is allowed to meter a customer. Otherwise the use of water is not billed in areas that are abundantly supplied with water resources. The government of England strives to conserve the available water resources and at the same time controlling the population of the citizens in the urban areas. Pollution control operation is a major practice in the two nations, with restrictions put on the maximum allowable discharge per plant into the natural resources. Though the annual water demand still exceeds the supply at some points, England stands at a better position in terms of urban water demand management. With favourable and uniform distribution of its water resources, the country projects high annual water supply and this is likely to meet the demand in the coming years. Having put in place the additional measures as those of the two former countries such as establishment of new supply infrastructure, aquifer recharge, direct effluent reuse and water transfer between the resources, it is evident that the ultimate goal of effective water management will be accomplished. From the strategic location of England in terms of climatic and other natural factors, it is evident to note that urban water demand may not be a challenge even in the coming years. Though climate change has been realized in some of the countries with similar geographical locations, it may not be easy for England and Wales to experience acute water shortages as a result of the increasing demand. Most of the water is produced from natural precipitation and not as in the case of China where the underground water forms a larger portion of the urban water. An illustration of this can be derived from the map of England as illustrated below (Wong et al. 2012, p. 24). From the map of England shown in the diagram above, it is clear that the urban geographical extent is not so much pronounced as compared to the national parks and the areas left for natural conservation. For this reason, the aggregate annual demand for water is less compared to the two previous cases that have been studied. Direct Comparison From the three cases that have been analysed, water demand in the urban areas can be compared in terms of certain features as illustrated in the table below. China Australia England Largest Sector Agriculture Agriculture Domestic Use Largest Population area Urban-based Urban-based Evenly populated Demand vs. Supply Not balanced Not balanced Fairly balanced The illustration indicates that all factor held constant, England stands at a better chance of controlling and effectively satisfying its urban water demand. Discussion Water demand in the urban areas keeps on being a challenge to governments and as well to individuals. In the case of the three countries that are chosen for case analysis, it is clear that none of the four selected countries has been in a position to fully meet the requirements to successfully meet the demand for urban water. All the sectors require equal attention to be satisfied by any government. Taking the case of China, the agricultural and industrial sectors require as much water as possible, just as in the case of Australia. The increasing population in both countries call for measures to evenly distribute the water resources across these countries. England and Wales, on the other hand may enjoy the benefits of distributed location of these water resources and this gives them an upper hand in effectively controlling urban water demand and consumption. From the projections of Australia and China, the more the population will be expected to rise, the less there will be the chance of meeting all these requirements for demand and supply of water. The urban set-ups require as much water as possible in China for manufacture of paper and chemicals which have a great impact on the Gross Domestic Product of China and in turn raising revenue for the country. Conclusion Other than the four selected countries, there are several nations all over the world that suffer the impact of low water supply compared to the supply. Most developing countries, especially in Africa have much worse situations than those of the cases mentioned in the discussion. Water demand in the urban areas is a global challenge and requires adequate initiatives and workable plans to be effectively managed. Recommendation In order to satisfactorily manage water demand, it is advisable first to conserve the natural resources. Natural precipitation forms a great extent of water source both in the urban and rural areas. In addition, conservation practices such as water re-use, recycling and treatment should be invested in across all cities of the world. This may make it possible to supply water to quantities almost satisfying the rising demands. Bibliography Australian Government, 2011, ‘Australia’s Urban Water Sector’, Government Publication, Australia, viewed 29 August 2014, Brent, C. & Henry, N., 2011, ‘Urban Water Supply and Use,’ The Australian Collaboration, Australia, viewed 29 August 2014, DOW, 2011. ‘China’s thirst for Water’, Water and Process Solutions, Shanghai, viewed 29 August 2014, Mitchell, 2012, ‘Applying Integrated Urban Water Management Concepts: A review of Australian Experience’, Monash University, Australia, viewed 29 August 2014, Postnote, 2012, ‘Water Resource Resilience’ Parliamentary Office if Science and Technology: London White, S., Robinson, J., Cordell, D., Jha, M. & Milne, G. (2009), ‘Urban Water Demand Forecasting and Demand Management’ University of Technology Sidney: Australia, viewed 29 August 2014, Wong, B., Baker, M., Baing, A., Webb., B., & Hincks, S, 2012. ‘A Map of Englang- Spatial Expression of Government Policies and Programmes.’ Centre for Urban Policy Studies: London, viewed 29 August 2014, Read More

The government of China has been on the ground in expanding the water resource to meet the demands of the rising population. From 2007-2008, the net water resources in China increased by 7.7% and average natural precipitation recorded an increase of 6%, placing the annual average precipitation at 646.4mm. A breakdown into China’s water resources and their overall capacities can be represented using the chart below (DOW, 2011, p. 02). From the above illustration, it is evident that China’s largest source of water is the natural ground water resources.

It is from the renewable resources that nearly half of the country’s urban population gets the water from. This applies for both domestic and industrial uses. From the urban perspective, it is notable that China’s cities account for 58.9% of the country’s domestic water demand. The remaining 41% is attributable to counties’ demand for water in the country. In comparison to 2007 statistics, the agricultural, industrial, domestic and environmental replenishment water use rose by 2.1 km3 in the year 2008.

This has been rising steadily over the years. The percentage has never been the same for any two consecutive years. The annual demand for water in China from the urban sector is mainly represented by industrial uses, domestic uses, replenishment, and agricultural purposes. The annual demand for urban water use, as per the 2008 statistical reports indicated a break-down as illustrated below (DOW, 2011, p. 02). From the statistical values, it emerges that China’s population is mainly supported by their agricultural activities that call for water demand of up to 62.

1% of the nation’s total urban water demand. China has taken several steps ahead towards creating more water resources. These efforts started even before the population burst that is now becoming a challenge. In the 1999s, for example, China adopted the public-private partnership (PPP) to put up more water plants to support the existing population and also for the growing industrial revolution. The urban sector in China is occupied by different industries that require a lot of water. For example, China is the biggest paper manufacturer in the world.

By the year 2012, there were over 3500 paper-manufacturing companies located in China, all producing in large scale. There are thirteen provinces located in China each producing at least 1 million tons of paper and paper products. This accounts for over 91% of China’s total paper production. The paper output in China is projected to expand to 100 million tons by the year 2020. This will call for a high demand in the rate of water demand by the time this vision is accomplished. In addition to the paper plants, the other sector that uses a lot of water from the industrial China is the Chemicals’ industry.

China is known for production and exportation of a variety of chemicals. There are over 21, 000 chemical manufacturing plants located in China’s urban centres. Each of these manufacturers requires enough water to mix their reagents and carry out analyses in the production processes. In a bid to reduce the overall production costs, the government located nearly half of these chemical producing plants along the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. This industry was celebrated due to its huge contributions on the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

As a result of the high water demand in China, there are strategies that the government has put in place as well as suitable objectives to be achieved in line with water supply. China strives to achieve up to 95% of urban total water supply to the convenience of all the sectors that are involved in production and also for domestic purposes. In addition, the country has projected addition of 40 million m3/d; to the overall water supply capacity. Other strategies that are now being invested on in the urban regions are water re-use and recycling within the industries, wastewater treatment, water harvesting in areas with favourable climate and seawater desalination.

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