Relationship Between Geology And Business - Coursework Example

Geology: Techniques used in mineral and oil exploration Most people know that geology has something to do with the study of the earth but few perhaps know how a geologist goes about doing his or her work or indeed, what tools are available to assist the geologist. Whether in mapping out the destruction unleashed by a hurricane, predicting earthquakes, or searching for the next big oil find, geologists have contributions to make. This paper examines some of the technologies available to the 21st century geologist and some of the geological principles that have traditionally been involved in finding minerals and oil. In the past, one could not conceive of a geologist doing her work without actually getting down and dirty, digging, or examining rocks and formations on the surface in an effort to predict what may have happened in the past or may lie beneath the surface. In the case of oil, the study of rock formations and large areas revealed to geologists that areas with sedimentary rock formations are the most common places to find oil. “They form in response to motion between the earth’s tectonic plates, and at boundaries (whether passive or active) of the earth’s continental and oceanic plates” (“The fundamental principles of oil exploration www.bernsteinresearch.com 29). Once a promising area has been identified, various tests are done to find out the probability of discovering a significant find of oil. After all, only a significant find will make the effort and costs involved worthwhile. It is not in the area of oil exploration alone, however, where geologists are employed. Geological surveys and studies have shown that in the case of diamonds, placer-type deposits, which relate to rivers and beaches, and kimberlite pipes are the main sources. Whereas oil is mostly found in sedimentary formations, kimberlite pipes are made up of “a form of igneous intrusion of ultramafic magma from deep beneath the earth’s crust that, given the right conditions, may bring diamonds to the surface from the very high-temperature and high-pressure zones where the diamonds are formed” (Boyd 2006). It is because of the near-certainty of geological data and their interpretations that many people suspected that there were diamonds in Canada long before they actually were (Boyd 2006). In the case of diamond, chemical analysis of kimberlite indicator minerals such as diopside, ilmenite and chromite have traditionally been used. As technology gets better, however, increasingly, researchers and geologists are having to use tools that can allow them to probe deeper into the earth or find out more about a terrain that is not easily accessible. Such technologies, interestingly, are no longer restricted to the so-called advanced nations such as the United States or Canada. Increasingly, developing nations that hope to find oil or some other minerals in their territories are making use of some of the newer technologies to find out what lies beneath the surface of their land. As technology has evolved, however, direct contact has not necessarily been essential for the geologists to be effective in her work. In one of the exciting new developments, a company in California, eField Exploration LLC, has created an airborne geologic survey took that may seem more science fiction than today’s reality to some. The system in question is deployed in the air and makes use of cutting edge developments in sensor technology, along with stabilizing controls, filters, and processors. “It is built into the wingtips, tail and nose of a small plane or a helicopter-towed drone, although the more stable plane is the platform of choice” (Kelly 2006). The equipment in question is able to operate in lower frequencies compared to other airborne systems and this tactical advantage makes it possible for the system to “map from higher, safer altitudes, at greater speed and with more accuracy, to significantly grater depths (20,000 ft and more, versus 3,000 ft or less) than other airborne electromagnetic mapping tools” (Kelly 2006). Another interesting feature of the eField Exploration tool is that it makes use of so-called “telluric current” which are set up by storms and solar winds and are known to send out electromagnetic energy. This helps the system to record any reactions or changes in the magnetic and electric fields of the earth. In fact, this system “works across a broad range of frequencies, including ones from 0.01 Hz to 3 Hz. The lower the frequency, the deeper the penetration. By correlating frequency to changes induced in electric fields surrounding oil and water deposits, for instance, the system can directly detect and map them in real time, 20,000 ft to even 30,000 ft under ground” (Kelly 2006). eField Exploration is hardly the only company that has an airborne geologic survey device. In mineral and petroleum exploration, one might safely say that such airborne devices have become almost de rigueur. For example, a company based in Ottawa, Canada, known as Sander Geophysics (SGL) does high-resolution airborne surveys targeted at finding mineral and petroleum deposits. In addition, the company does airborne mapping of the environment. For both companies mentioned the use of unmanned airborne vehicles (UAVs) are a very important element in the exploration mix and it seems that the use of such vehicles will increase in the future. These vehicles are able to go where it is really difficult for people to go because of the nature of the terrain and their success is in part because “More and more, magnetometers, spectrometers, and other ground survey instrumentation are being built with integrated global positioning systems (GPS) and lightweight, powerful computers that allow for real-time position location, data processing and displays in the field” (Killeen 2005). These airborne explorations are often successful because they are linked to other technologies on the ground such as computers and software. The improvement in airborne technologies is accompanied by improvements in computer and software development, creating the perfect match for greater understanding of what lies beneath the surface. A Toronto, Canada-based company known as Geosoft, for example, has mineral exploration mapping and processing system which, in its latest version, 6.0, includes tools for interpretation. “A range of gridding algorithms[minimum curvature (random), line (bidirectional), trended gridding, tinning (natural neighbour, linear and nearest neighbour) and kriging] highlight the suite” (Killeen 2005). In addition, the program includes an array of map-editing tools and the standard drag and drop features found in most modern software. In recent years, some countries in Southeast Asia, including Pakistan and Bangladesh, have been making use of satellite imagery to find out if they have significant oil deposits. As Alan K. Williams explains in the article, “The Role of Satellite Exploration in the Search for new Petroleum Reserves in South Asia,” “Many enlightened major companies now use satellite remote sensing as a routine part of their initial exploration phase, to unravel complex structure and geology ahead of expensive fieldwork or seismic programmes” (Williams 2000). Also, lap-top computers provide the necessary link to digital images, a tool that many favour compared to paper bound approaches (Williams 2000). It is only since the early 1990s that airborne technology has taken off (pardon the pun). It was in 1992 that SAR or Synthetic Aperture Radar, which was an offshore seepage detection device came into use. Such technology relies on another geological near-certainty that many of the huge petroleum formations leak some “small quantities of oil and gas to the surface” (Williams 2000). In the offshore, under appropriate sea-state conditions, leaking oil will form surface slicks which are detectable by remote sensing platforms. The phenomenon is very simple, known to generations of mariners as ‘pouring oil on troubled waters’ and essentially results in a lack of returning signal emitted by an active side-looking radar system” (Williams 2000). Normally, wave action has a surface roughness that sends energy back to the sensor and creates a grey or speckled form of image. In a surface that is damped by oil, however, “the beam is reflected away from the sensor and an area of ‘no return’ is recorded…which appears black on the image” (Williams 2000). It is possible for those who are skilled in interpreting such results to determine if there is indeed a flowing oil seep. This is important because it is not oil alone that leaves such signatures. Pollution may be the cause of an apparent leak. Costs have also come down because there are many satellites orbiting the earth. This has created a competitive environment as the governments and companies that deployed the satellites seek ways of recouping some of their investment. Though it is generally recognized that all traps in basins that have significant oil reserves will leak some of the oil that can be detected, there are exceptions. Such exceptions include deposits such as unstructured basins that lie in an unbroken evaporitic regional seal such as the Arabian-Iranian basin (Williams 2000). The resolutions of images from satellites have also increasingly become better. In the article, Successful integration of remote sensing and ground based ex,” Robert F.E. Jones and Michael Oehlers highlight the importance that geological understanding plays in the arena of exploration of oil. Geology, which focuses on learning about any and all terrains provide incredible insights for prediction that can help save money for companies that want to drill for oil. In one particular case involving an arid region in the Hadramut region of Yemen, remote sensing technology has been deployed to provide the kind of information necessary for decision makers to determine what the possibilities are in terms of finding oil and the quantities that might be involved. Without such data it is possible for a company to sink into a project millions of dollars only to find out after much time has been wasted that there is not as much oil hidden underground as might have been suggested. In this example, “The remove sensed data found most useful for these projects comprises SPOT Panchromatic, 10 m resolution, “vertical looks” and “stereo pairs” for the whole area of operations. The SPOT vertical data were registered and combined with multispectral LandSat Thematic Mapper data of 30 m resolution to create false-color images with the apparent resolution of 10 m” (Jones& Oehlers 1995 47). In order to produce images that are as clear as can be the processing routine for the LandSat bands and images were done in such a way as to discriminate clearly between rocks of different type. Images were blown up and enhanced using 486 series personal computers. Another sine qua non technology that was involved in the Yemen project was a Global Positioning System (GPS) for which the purpose was to tie the images correctly to points on the ground. Having the images in place is one thing; interpreting them is quite another. Exaggeration of the features through enhancement allowed some features to be visible many of which were not visible from a helicopter. A monoclinal flexure was interpreted in Block 10b which could not be confirmed by observation on the ground or from the helicopter. This flexure was finally confirmed to be present, with a dip reversal of only 0.2 deg, when a seismic line was acquired through the feature” (Jones & Oehlers 1995 47). This highlights the reality that it is not enough to rely simply on the human eye or even observations from helicopters because some sensing technology used in geological exploration and research can “see” far better than any human eye. While traditional satellite images of the earth’s surface are usually two-dimensional, the use of stereo SPOTs in the Yemen exploration described by Jones and Oehlers allowed for the possibility of creating a contour map through the use of digital elevation model (DEM). This model assists planners to work out where the road routes should be, where wells should be sited, and other elements relating to operations. Though computers have been mentioned this does not mean that hard copies of data are useless. In fact, digital technology and traditional paper based technology can complement each other quite effectively and handsomely. As Jones and Oehlers conclude, “Twenty years ago, remote sensing promised to revolutionize exploration; unfortunately, many of the early promises made were unfulfilled and remote sensing tended to drop out of mainstream exploration. Both these extremes are unrealistic , and these projects…illustrate some of the ways remote sensing become a successful and cost-effective part of an exploration program” (Jones & Oehlers 1995 47). In the view of the authors, successful integration of remote sensed data with field work and geological survey provide a good combination of methods that can help raise the reliability level of findings. Such a combination of techniques helps to save what might have been hundreds if not thousands of man-hours and cost to do things using manpower alone. The creation of the structural contour map using remote sensed data is one of the greatest advantages as it allows for making proper depth conversions and modeling of structural evolution. Remote sensing can be particularly useful in arid regions and can be modified to be of benefit in areas that have vegetation cover as well, making it ideal for both worlds (Jones and Oehlers 1995 47). Yet another method that has found favourable application in some parts of the world involve the use of surface and aerial gamma-ray spectral measurements. In the past, lithologic and environmental variables were suppressed by making use of a system known as thorium normalization. This method made use of the fact that normalized potassium can be found in low concentrations above deposits of petroleum. “Normalized uranium shows higher values than normalized potassium over petroleum and generally lower values elsewhere. These anomalies are attributed to effects of microbial consumption of microseeping light hydrocarbons. Studies of National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) program aerial gamma-ray spectral data covering portions of six states have shown characteristic normalized potassium and uranium anomalies above 72.7% of 706 oil and gas fields” (Saunders et al. 1993 104). Already, tests done in Australia have shown that there is a strong correlation between radiometrically favourable spots and oil and gas regions. This tool may come across as one of a number of new tools available to the petroleum explorer. In truth, work on gamma radiation measurements started as far as the 1950s and in the earlier phases, involved total-count gamma-ray measurements which did not identify the gamma-emitting radioelements. This hampered the development of chemical models that would be suitable to pinpoint the formation of the requisite anomalies. In the 1960s the development of reliable field and aerial and gamma-ray spectrometers made it possible to properly develop models that were based on the “geochemical characteristics of the radioelements” (Saunders et al. 1993 104). The range of tools available to the exploration geologist or geophysicist is wide ranging indeed. This makes the work of a geologist easier in some ways since some of the common challenges that hampered exploration work have been made easier through these new techniques. At the same time it is more than ever important that the geologist learn about new tools and measures so that he or she can make the proper judgement regarding which method is suitable for a particular project and condition. It has never been more challenging to be a geologist and perhaps never more rewarding. Bibliography Boyd, Darren F. “Canadian Diamonds: Obscurity to Center Stage.” Rocks and Minerals, Vol. 81 Issue 4 (Jul/Aug 2006):278. Jaremko Gordon. “Martian eyes check out oil sand veins: Technology may reveal what’s underground.” Edmonton Journal, (Mar 4, 2005):F1. Jones, Robert F.E. & Oehlers, Michael. “Successful integration of remote sensing and ground based ex.” Oil & Gas Journal, (Mar 6, 1995):47. Kai, Hsu et al. “Sonic-while-drilling tool detects overpressured formations.” Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 95 Issue 31 (Aug 4, 1997):59. Kelly, Jane Irene. “Seeing Deeply.” Engineering News-Record, Vol. 257 Issue 6 (8/7/2006):18. Killeen, Patrick G. “Exploration trends and developments.” The Northern Miner, vol. 91 Issue 4 (Mar 2005):1. Saunders, Donald et al. “New method of aerial and surface radiometric prospecting for oil, gas.” Oil & Gas Journal, Vol 91 Issue 38 (1993):104. The fundamental principles of oil exploration www.bernsteinresearch.com (December 4, 2006). Read More

The system in question is deployed in the air and makes use of cutting edge developments in sensor technology, along with stabilizing controls, filters, and processors. “It is built into the wingtips, tail and nose of a small plane or a helicopter-towed drone, although the more stable plane is the platform of choice” (Kelly 2006). The equipment in question is able to operate in lower frequencies compared to other airborne systems and this tactical advantage makes it possible for the system to “map from higher, safer altitudes, at greater speed and with more accuracy, to significantly grater depths (20,000 ft and more, versus 3,000 ft or less) than other airborne electromagnetic mapping tools” (Kelly 2006).

Another interesting feature of the eField Exploration tool is that it makes use of so-called “telluric current” which are set up by storms and solar winds and are known to send out electromagnetic energy. This helps the system to record any reactions or changes in the magnetic and electric fields of the earth. In fact, this system “works across a broad range of frequencies, including ones from 0.01 Hz to 3 Hz. The lower the frequency, the deeper the penetration. By correlating frequency to changes induced in electric fields surrounding oil and water deposits, for instance, the system can directly detect and map them in real time, 20,000 ft to even 30,000 ft under ground” (Kelly 2006).

eField Exploration is hardly the only company that has an airborne geologic survey device. In mineral and petroleum exploration, one might safely say that such airborne devices have become almost de rigueur. For example, a company based in Ottawa, Canada, known as Sander Geophysics (SGL) does high-resolution airborne surveys targeted at finding mineral and petroleum deposits. In addition, the company does airborne mapping of the environment. For both companies mentioned the use of unmanned airborne vehicles (UAVs) are a very important element in the exploration mix and it seems that the use of such vehicles will increase in the future.

These vehicles are able to go where it is really difficult for people to go because of the nature of the terrain and their success is in part because “More and more, magnetometers, spectrometers, and other ground survey instrumentation are being built with integrated global positioning systems (GPS) and lightweight, powerful computers that allow for real-time position location, data processing and displays in the field” (Killeen 2005). These airborne explorations are often successful because they are linked to other technologies on the ground such as computers and software.

The improvement in airborne technologies is accompanied by improvements in computer and software development, creating the perfect match for greater understanding of what lies beneath the surface. A Toronto, Canada-based company known as Geosoft, for example, has mineral exploration mapping and processing system which, in its latest version, 6.0, includes tools for interpretation. “A range of gridding algorithms[minimum curvature (random), line (bidirectional), trended gridding, tinning (natural neighbour, linear and nearest neighbour) and kriging] highlight the suite” (Killeen 2005).

In addition, the program includes an array of map-editing tools and the standard drag and drop features found in most modern software. In recent years, some countries in Southeast Asia, including Pakistan and Bangladesh, have been making use of satellite imagery to find out if they have significant oil deposits. As Alan K. Williams explains in the article, “The Role of Satellite Exploration in the Search for new Petroleum Reserves in South Asia,” “Many enlightened major companies now use satellite remote sensing as a routine part of their initial exploration phase, to unravel complex structure and geology ahead of expensive fieldwork or seismic programmes” (Williams 2000).

Also, lap-top computers provide the necessary link to digital images, a tool that many favour compared to paper bound approaches (Williams 2000).

Read More