Approaches to Environmental Management Policy: Ozone Layer Depletion - Research Paper Example

APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT POLICY OZONE LAYER DEPLETION BY: FATI ADAMS TABLE OF CONTENT Introduction Ozone layer depletion The cause and elements leading to ozone layer depletion Effects of ozone depletion 2. Need for international response 3. Implementing the international response 4. Legislation and policies Montreal protocol Regulation EC 1005/2009 Regulation EC 2037/2000 5. Other countries efforts to curb the ozone layer depletion 6. Conclusion 7. References 1. Introduction The interplay of several natural conditions reduces hazards caused by extra-terrestrial environment for the survival of living organisms on the planet earth. Most importantly, the layers that make up the earth’s atmosphere are critical to the survival of living organisms. This paper entails the depletion of the ozone layer and the resulting problems. The paper looks at the scale of the problem, way the depletion started, where it started, as well as how quickly the problem emerged. Such consideration provides the basis of the best actions to be taken in an attempt to deal with the issue (Yokouchi et al., 2000). The depletion of ozone layer involves two different phenomena that have been observed since period towards the late 1970s. The phenomena include a steady decline in ozone total volume in earth’s atmospheres and the decrease in the stratospheric ozone volume over the polar regions. The two phenomena are related in the sense that they can be collectively termed as ozone depletion. Ozone depletion is more pronounce over the polar regions. The scale of the problem is raising great concern about the possible effects. Much concern has been place d on the endless environmental pollution through mainly chemicals such as chlorine and bromine (Yokouchi et al., 2000). The chemicals are leading to the deterioration of the ozone layer allowing huge amounts of hazardous ultraviolet B rays, which in return contribute to skin cancer as well as cataracts among humans besides the harm caused to animals by the same rays. To explain the concept of ozone depletion, various layers of the atmosphere need to be considered. The atmosphere is made up of about five layers which include the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. In this case, both troposphere and stratosphere are significant considerations given that they are the most affected. Troposphere is the layer in contact with the earth and within which there is the occurrence of snow, rain, clouds and other weather elements. The temperatures and gases composition in this layer are balanced to a point of sustain life. Above this layer is the stratosphere in which the a protective ozone layer forms. Ozone depletion occurs when the protective ozone layers within the stratosphere is destroyed. Forrest (1994) posits that without the stratosphere, we would not survive. The layer absorbs the hazardous Ultra Violet radiations emitted by the sun which would, otherwise, destroy the life of both animals and plants. This layer varies from time to time within various locations above the earth’s surface. It is considered thinnest over the polar regions especially over the Antarctic region. Within the Antarctic region, ozone layer depletion is greatest during winter and spring. The largest ozone hole ever recorded was over the Antarctic polar region in 2006. Typically this region has the largest cases of ozone holes occurring in winter and spring. Figure 1: Largest Ozone Hole ever Recorded (over Antarctica in 2006) Source: (NASA, 2013) The phenomenon in this case is called ozone hole, and it is largest in spring, although it occurs in both winter and summer. The other layers of the atmosphere include mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere as shown in the diagram below. Figure 2: Layers of the atmosphere of the earth (NASA, 2013) Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally and which concentrates into a layer in the stratosphere to form the protective stratospheric ozone layer. Siva and Reddy (2011) describe the ozone layer as the sunscreen of the earth. The layer is made up of ozone, which has molecules with three oxygen atoms (O3). The layer is located between 19km-50 km above the surface of the earth, and absorbs almost 99% of the high frequency rays of the sun. The ozone layer’s thickness varies with geographical locations and seasons. At lower ground levels, the reaction of some volatile organic substances and oxides of nitrogen (Wheeler, 2002) can also produce ozone. Ozone gas is one of the components of the urban smog and is often dangerous to humans and plants health. Therefore, despite the structure of ozone being similar in stratosphere and at ground level, it assumes two conflicting roles; protects life while at stratosphere but is a life hazard at ground level. Ozone Layer Depletion Over the years, episodes of depletion of ozone have been occurring, and are described by the term ozone hole within the polar regions since the problem ozone depletion was recognizes during the late 1970s. Ozone hole denotes a region in which the depletion of the ozone layer is quite severe such that it is below 200 Dobson units (Bakers, 2000; Monahan, 1991). This severity is mostly over the earth’s Polar Regions. However, the ozone holes despite their imminent danger, do not blur the massive and progressive losses of ozone at the Polar Regions and even low but significant ozone loss in the Antactic region (Hannigan and Coffey 2012; Manney and Larsen, 2011). Generally, the problem of ozone depletion is seen to be increasing with time as shown in figure 3 below. Figure 1 shows Sava and Reddy (2011), asserts that in the Southern Hemisphere within the mid latitudes, ozone depletion has remained constantly as compared to the Northern Hemisphere where the depletion increase from a mimimum value of about 2 per cent between 1996 and 2009. Over the Antarctica region, records of ozone hole have been the highest causing the highest stratospheric warming during springtime, especially in the 1970s. This ozone hole has been found to be severe over the Antarctic Peninsula. In 2011, the ozone layer was just 160 Dobson units. The depletion by then exceeded 50% (Smith, previdi and Plovani, 2013; Persson and Dastidar, 2013). The main global implication is increased presence of source gases that contain chlorine. These gases dissociate in the presence of UV light to release chlorine atoms. Such atoms catalyze ozone destruction. The results of this destruction have been global warming over the region (Hannigan and Coffey, 2012). Cause and Sources of Agents Leading to Ozone Depletion Ozone levels over the Antarctic’s stratosphere have dropped significant to 33 per cent of the pre-values of the 1970s. The ozone hole usually occur in the Antarctic spring. This is the period between September and early December. Source gases that contain chlorine are the main causes of ozone depletion (Zehr, 1994). The gases dissociate to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms go ahead to act as a catalyst for the ozone destruction. Chlorine-catalyzed ozone depletion usually happens in the gas phase. Nevertheless, the ozone depletion process is dramatically enhanced within the presence of the polar stratospheric clouds. The polar stratospheric clouds mainly form in winter and in the presence of extreme coldness. Since polar winters are mostly dark with up to three months without any solar radiation, the depletion process is likely to be too high during this time. Low solar radiation contributes to extreme coldness leading to vortex traps as well as chill air. The low temperatures lead to the formation of cloud particles. The cloud particle on the other hand provide adequate surfaces for the processes of chemical reactions. The chemical reaction products lead to ozone depletion in the spring (Zehr, 1994). The photochemical processes in this case are complex. Most of the chlorine within the stratospheric layer are in reservoir compounds especially chlorine nitrate. Again, it exists in the form of HCl, which is a stable end product. These reservoirs are however converted into free radicals through reactions that take effect in Antarctic winters and springs. Nevertheless, most of the sources of chlorine that goes to the stratosphere are anthropogenic (from human activities) as shown in figure 3 below. Figure 3: Sources of Stratospheric Chlorine Source: (Yokouchi et al., 2000) Typically, Antarctic ozone depletion is highest in spring implying that sunlight plays a key role in the depletion process (Zehr, 1994). The radiative forcing components are summarized in figure 4 below. Figure 4: Radiative Forcing Components Source: (Hegerl et al., 2007) Effects of Ozone Depletion Scientists and chemists discovered that the major cause of ozone depletion is Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromine that is also referred to as the Halocarbons (Haas, 1992; Polvani et al., 2012). These compounds interfere with the natural balance that exists between the production and destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. However, although natural phenomena may cause loss of thinning of the ozone layer, the CFCs and bromine catalyses destruction leading to less that required level of the ozone layer within a relatively shorter period (Dyominov and Zadorozhny, 2008). These destructive elements are released by human activities, and unlike other elements; they are not washed back to earth by the rains. The ODS do not easily break down in the troposphere and, therefore, they can be in the atmosphere for more than a century. The Ultra violet rays of the sun breaks down the CFCS releasing chlorine which subsequently, break ozone to oxygen molecule and oxygen atom; the atom combine with chlorine but is released to combine with another free oxygen atom and leaves chlorine free to break more ozone to oxygen. Sava and Reddy (2011) argue that a chlorine atom can repeat the process of breaking the ozone 100000 times. Over 80% of the stratospheric ozone layer depletion is attributed to CFCs. The increased penetration of UV radiations poses a danger on human eyes, causes skin cancer as well as infectious diseases. The radiations are known to cause damage to the eye cornea leading to blindness. They also destroy the immune system of the body making the body susceptible to infectious diseases (West and Munoz, 2006). The lack of or inadequacy of immunity exposes the skin especially those of races with light skin to infectious agents. The plants are also affected by the UV-B radiation which causes mutation to plants and, therefore, may lead to biodiversity changes in some ecosystems (Aggarawal et al., 2013). The rays also affect the plants’ metabolism, which impacts the competitive balance in the plants (Lidon, 2012). The Aquatic ecosystems are also affected by the ozone depletion. The UV rays hinder the reproduction and growth of phytoplankton which is the main food for sea animals (Neale Davis and Cullen, 1998). Studies have also revealed that the Ultra Violet-B has a damaging effect on the early development of shrimp, fish amphibian, crabs and other animals (Wilkinson et al., 2012). Elsewhere, the ultra violet radiations negatively affects the aquatic and terrestrial biogeochemical cycles and consequently, impact the greenhouse gases including carbon dioxide and carbon sulphide. It inhibits the natural process of plants leading to build up of greenhouse gases, alters production and decomposition of plants and increases the rate of degradation of organic matter dissolved in seas (Perin and lean, 2004). The UV rays affect air quality in the troposphere and materials. The radiations can destroy some compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, which would have adverse impacts on life. The rays degrade both the natural biopolymers and synthetic polymers reducing the lifetime of items made by such polymers (Sava and Reddy, 2011). Finally, the ozone layer depletion causes changes in climate. The ozone layer absorbs infrared emitted by the earth as well as ultra violet from the sun. These functions regulate the temperatures of the troposphere (Misra et al., 2012). Depletion of the ozone layer, therefore, means that temperature regulation function is lost, and high temperatures would have adverse effects on climate change (Akanle, 2010). The trends in ozone depletion calls of immediate response since ozone layer has decreased significantly from 1984 to 1997 as shown in figure 5 below. Figure 5: Ozone layer change between 1984 and 19997 2. Need for international response The continued depletion of the protective ozone layer is a global issue that a single country or even a group of countries cannot solve. The release of ozone depleting substances does not necessarily affect the atmosphere where it is produced. It is with this understanding that the international community came up with ways of combating the problem by imposing global regulations on environmental pollution (Munasingh and King, 1992). However, these interventions have been subject to ratification by individual countries. They also did not spell out what exactly an individual country would do to combat ozone depletion. Instead, it was up to the country to legislate its own regulations. That is why the US continues using ODS as propellant and china continued producing thousands of metric tonnes of CFCs till 2007. All these limitations underscore the need for a more international response to depletion of the ozone layer. Such an international response should address all aspect of ozone depletion. The response should apply to all countries. It should lay restrictions on production, distribution and consumption of ozone depleting elements by dictating the maximum amount that a country can produce. Individual countries should, therefore, ensure that production and use of ODS does not exceed the set limit. An international body should also be set up to monitor and ensure that all countries adhere to the international policy. Defiant should be face penalties such as trade injunction with the world. 3. Implementing the international response The provisions of Montreal protocol are essential guidelines that will ultimately phase out substances that deplete ozone layer. Any efforts, at the international levels, to combat ozone layer depletion should focus on strengthening the provisions of the Montreal and other existing protocols instead of creating new treaties. Contributing to the on-going efforts will result in synergy that will enable full recovery of the ozone layer. Just like the previous international policies, much of the implementation should be at the individual country level. The international community will formulate the general policy, establish the global needs and bind all countries. It should also oversee the legislation and projects that individual countries put in place to address the ozone layer depletion problem. Major governmental and intergovernmental bodies of research and science such as NASA will help in evaluating the success of the international policy. Individual countries will be expected to come up with legislation that clearly outline the steps to be taken to address its production and consumption of ODS. The international community responsible for global ozone layer policy implementation will scrutinize such legislations. 4. Legislation and policies The solution to the ozone layer depletion problem has been the benchmark of analysis of making environmental policies and global issues resulting from environmental pollution. The interplay among international negotiations, domestic regulation, scientific assessment and development technological innovation, and different private and public interests is at the core of endeavours to fight global warming, which is caused by the destruction of the ozone layer. Governmental, as well as intergovernmental scientific research bodies such as the NASA, have been a significant asset in the establishment of international policies regarding the ozone layer depletion and the causes as well providing relevant information to formulate legislation and policies (Crutzen and Oppenheimer, 2008). Montreal protocol The Montreal Protocol, which is an international treaty, was designed with an aim of protecting the ozone layer. It was meant to phase out the production of the numerous substances, which, are considered responsible for the ozone depletion. The treaty was found to be essential for international response in order to recover the ozone layer by the year 2050, but as long as the treaty was adhered to. At the international level, Montreal protocol has been a tool adopted as a treaty by numerous countries to counter the causes of ozone depletion. The protocol was established in 1987 with the mission of phasing out substances that are responsible for depletion of the ozone layer; these include ozone depleting substances such as those used in air conditioning equipment, refrigerators, solvents, fire fighting equipment and fumigants (Morriessette, 1987; Rowlands and Greene, 1995). The international community believes that if the treaty is adhered to, the recovery of the ozone layer will be achieved by the year 2050. Although this may be seen to be a long way in to the future, it is important to appreciate the fact it takes time for industries to change their operation and, therefore, face out ozone depleting substances. This protocol includes in its provisions adjustment that enables it to quickly respond to new discoveries such as the extreme stability of chlorine molecule and their reaction processes. The adjustments also have been accelerating the rate of reduction of substances that are already listed in the protocol. Apparently, the significance of this protocol is undeniable because as long as the international communities corporate, the release of destructive substances similar to those reserved in the stratosphere would be phased of by observing environmental conservation measure such reduced air pollution. It has been made as dynamic as possible to incorporate new scientific information by adjusting existing provisions or adding new provisions, attract countries from all over the world and is supported by all environmental organisations. The protocol has also undergone amendment a number of times. Amendments, unlike the adjustments, require ratification by parties to the protocol. Additionally, financial mechanisms have been put in place to enable developing nations comply with the requirements of the protocol. It is expected that countries that subscribe to the protocol should have legislations in line with the protocol. UK is one of the members of the protocol and consequently has legislations and policies in line with the provisions of the protocol. Regulation on Ozone Depleting Substances (the ODS Regulation) In 2009, the EU saw the need to strengthen the Montreal Protocol by forming a regulation that could reduce the release of chemical substance leading to ozone depletion. The regulation was entitled “Regulation (EC) No 1005/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 September 2009 on substances that deplete the ozone layer” (http://rod.eionet.europa.eu/instruments/554). This new legislation numbered EC 1005/2009 has gone a great length to ensuring the provisions of Montreal protocol are met. Achievement of this legislation has laid down rules relating to production, export and import, use, placing on the market, recycling, recovery and reclamation as well as destruction of the ozone layer depleting substances. The implication of this regulation has been on new substances, controlled substances as well as equipment and products that have or rely on substances that deplete the ozone layer (The European parliament and the Council, 2009). The regulation EC1005/2009 prohibit producing ODS, use and marketing these substances and marketing of equipment and products that contain or rely on the controlled substances. The legislation also bans importing of ozone depleting substances or equipment and products that contain or rely on such substances. This extends to free circulation or release of the imported controlled substances in the community. Similar prohibition is made on export. Generally, the regulation exerts rules on production, importing, exporting, placing on the market, using, recovering, recycling, reclaiming, and destruction of those substances that contribute to ozone layer depletion. Montreal protocol envisions phasing out ODS. In compliance to this, chapter four of the regulation EC 1005/2009 lays down the rules on recovery and destruction of used ODS. Efforts are expected to prevent or ensure minimum emission or leakage of substances that deplete the ozone layer from their industries or equipment such as refrigeration systems (The European parliament and the Council, 2009). All these prohibitions have been made to ensure that no chances are left to destruction of the ozone layer in the future. As a result of the regulations adopted, research by Naess (2004) reported that EU had been successful in phasing out over 90% of its ozone depleting substances. This is expected to be enhanced by the recent regulation of 2009. Regulation (EC) No 2037/2000 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 June 2000 on substances that deplete the ozone layer Scott (1998) and Milmo (1998) report that in 1998, to make the Montreal Protocol effective and exceed the requirements of Montreal protocol, European Commission adopted proposals that would regulate the ozone layer depletion. In this case, the idea was to come up with suggestion on how countries could act to save the world from the increasing problem of ozone depletion. The proposals were turned to EC regulation, initially 3093/94/EC and then regulation EC2037/2000. This legislation banned the supply of Halons, CFCs, hydrobromofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride and trichchloroethane as well as bromochloromethane. These bans apply on materials with both recycled and virgin substances (Dixon, 2012). The legislation also made more thorough revision to the HCFCs controls on the use. Additional controls were made. The major feature of the legislation was that, from 2001, no HCFCs would be used in making new equipment, with a few exceptions. Repairing HCFCs system would be limited to using recovered refrigerant from 2010 to 2014. The major end HCFCs users were subjected to tougher use controls. They are required by the legislation to recover ozone depleting elements from equipments and prevent any leakage from their systems (Dixon, 2012). The EC regulation banned, with the exception of essential cases, supplying of substances that deplete ozone in containers that are disposable. It also banned, immediately, importing of ozone depleting elements except for hydrofluorocarbons. HCFC control dates were set upon which ban would be introduced to the products and equipment that HCFCs cover. The ban extended to CFCs as well as halons and items made up of these substances. The legislations have ensured compliance to the Montreal protocol as they have operated towards eliminating the use of ODS. As a result in 2010, the UK which is a member of the European Union totally phased out its consumption of substances that deplete ozone layer. This was 10 year before its obligation as set by the Montreal protocol. It has also been proactive in banning the use of chemical such as methyl bromide in fumigations. The legislations have not only been successful in phasing out the ODS, but also has also driven to new technologies to replace the phased out products. 5. Other countries’ efforts to curb the ozone layer depletion From the year 1976, many states in US prohibited the use chlorofluorocarbons, especially in spray cans. The main idea in this prohibition was to cut down the release of chloride elements and chlorine itself to the atmospheres, as a way of reduction human impact on ozone depletion. Federal legislation banning the use CFCs in US was passed in 1978. Consequently, producing as well as consumption of CFCs reduced drastically in US. However, CFCs continued being used in other areas such as propelling. This increased in 1980’s because of increasing space crafts and aircrafts being propelled. Unlike the US, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Canada banned or restricted using chlorofluorocarbons as propellant. In response to the Montreal Protocol, Russia has been a big player in the projects of combating ozone depletion. It has conducted several researches, which are meant to reduce depletion of the ozone layer. In 1990, Russia approached the ozone problem by controlling production and consumption of ODS with the objective of first reducing and then phasing the substances out by the year 2000 (Kotov and Nikitina, 2005). In 1996, Russia stopped completely both production and consumption refrigeration elements that contained Chlorofluorocarbon. It also banned them from trade in these substances. Currently, Russia has been working on a national programme of producing ozone benign substances for refrigeration. The programme also envisages progression of research of the ozone layer and ways of the ozone layer interaction with human and the biosphere. Russia intends to convert the country to ozone benign technology by collecting and recycling ODS. India has also been committing efforts to reduce depletion of the ozone layer. The country has been seeking technology and funds to phase out HCFCs (Sims, 2006). The country has been successful in phasing out ODS such as CFCs in 2008 which was before the time scheduled by the Montreal Protocol. Its focus now remains HCFCs which are not only ozone depleting agents but greenhouse elements. China has also been making huge strides and even sacrificing its huge projects to combat the problem. In 2007, the country closed 5 of its six plants that produce both chlorofluorocarbons and halons (ASHRAE, 2007). This was done as part of the country’s plan to reduce CFCs. Consequently, the production of CFCs reduced from 55000 metric tonnes to 550 metric tonnes. Almost all other countries, especially in the developed countries, which are the major ODS producers, have frameworks that are intended to reduce the ODS. Like the EU, most of the policies and legislation are in line with Vienna convention and Montreal Protocol. Figure 6: Trends in Effect of Chlorine/other substances after the Montreal Protocol and other Regulations Source: (Newman et al., 2006) The figure shows the trends in ozone-depleting gases as well as the equivalent chlorine effect. A combination of chlorine and bromine within the troposphere are from the many chlorinated and brominated chemicals that are controlled by the Montreal protocol (Newman et al., 2006). Most of the ozone loss occur in the stratosphere where the changes are reflected. Bromine is one of the ozone depleting elements. It is not as abundant as chlorine, but its effect is about 45 to 60 times that of chlorine (Yokouchi et al., 2000). The decrease in depleting chemical elements is caused by the increasing regulations on methyl chloroform as well as methyl bromine gases by the Montreal Protocol. 6. Conclusion In conclusion, it is vital to recap that the ozone layer is vital for life’s survival, and its protection means protecting life. The problem of ozone depletion is a global problem, and solving the problem is the responsibility of the entire world. EU and other countries in the world have been putting in place legislation and policies that lower production and consumption of ODS. International responses such as Vienna convention and Montreal Protocol have achieved success in countries that ratify them. New international responses should focus on contributing to existing efforts to better achieve success in ozone depletion prevention. The intervention should apply to all countries of the world since the problem is a global one. 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