Vehicular Air Pollution - Assignment Example

 Vehicular Air Pollution Dear Sir: Subject: Technical Research Report On Vehicular Air Pollution And Alternative Fuels for Future I take reference to your letter no. SCAPC / Vehicular Pollution / 01 dated 25th March 2006 authorizing me to prepare and submit a technical research report on vehicular air pollution and alternative fuels for future, along with my recommendation for the choice of the most appropriate fuel for the future. I have the pleasure in submitting to you with the report. In preparing this report, I have considered the air pollution caused by transport vehicles, both public and private. Issues of specific pollutants, extent of pollution and threshold limits have been considered, based on the extensive published data on the subject. Information on the developments in the search for viable alternative fuels and their relative merits has been included along with my recommendation for the choice of fuel for future. My research points out that natural gas in the near future and fuel cells in the longer run are the most appropriate sources of energy for vehicles. Such a change will beneficially impact in controlling and eventually eliminating vehicular emissions. At the same time, the automobile industry will also be able to meet the stringent emission norms within the time frame set for achieving the same. I further make bold to recommend that the efforts to develop fuel cell technology and its usage in all its aspects - right from the sources of hydrogen, location of reformers and development of network of service stations for public convenience (on existing lines for fossil fuels) - be redoubled to accelerate the phasing in of fuel cells and phasing out the fossil fuels within the next five years itself. I wish to voice my deep appreciation of the opportunity given to me for preparing this report. I also thankfully acknowledge the pioneering work being done by many individuals and organizations, whose published data is the source for this report. Thanking you, Sincerely, Mary Miller Enclosed: Report Technical Research Report On Vehicular Air Pollution And Alternative Fuels for Future (April 20, 2006) Commissioned by: US Department of Energy Washington Prepared by: Mary Miller Abstract Conventional fossil fuels represented by petrol and diesel, have many demerits, most important of which is the extensive air pollution they cause besides being unsustainable. Burning of fossil fuels is causing high levels of air pollution, mainly in the form of suspended particulate matter, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. Greenhouse gas effects have attracted international attention. Widespread research and testing is in various stages of progress in order to find answers to the twin issues of sustainable energy and eliminating / reducing air pollution. Alternative fuels in the race are natural gas, electric battery, hydrogen and fuel cells. Fuel cell technology has been identified as the most appropriate one to eliminate vehicular air pollution in future. Table of Contents Section Page No. I Introduction i. Subject 1 ii. Purpose 1 iii. Scope 1 iv. Plan of development 1 v. Background 1 II A. Vehicular Air Pollution i. Public & private transport vehicles 2 ii. Greenhouse gases 3 iii. Emission norms 3 B. Alternative Technologies i. Current state of development a. Natural gas 5 b. Electric (battery operated) 5 c. Hydrogen 5 d. Fuel cells 6 ii. Economic and other considerations 6 iii. Other relevant factors 7 III Research Method Published data 7 IV Recommendations 7 V Conclusion 8 Page 1 Technical Research Report On Vehicular Air Pollution And Alternative Fuels for Future I. Introduction Air pollution is a major problem engaging the attention of environmentalists around the world. Among the many causes that contribute to the worsening situation, the contribution of vehicular air pollution is considered both as a major factor and as one that is amenable for control. i. Subject: This technical research report is on the air pollution caused by vehicular emissions and the efforts being made by the governments / industry to reduce the same by developing new emission norms, fuels and technology for vehicles. ii. Purpose: The adverse effects of vehicular emissions on the environment as well as the exhaustible nature of fossil fuels are very important issues for maintaining an environmentally sustainable economic growth. This report is prepared on the basis of an assignment received from the US Department of Energy to report on the present status of vehicular air pollution and to make recommendations for the type of technologies to be adopted with a view to reduce / eliminate the same. iii. Scope: The report confines itself to a review of the work being done in the field by the specialist agencies as well as the emission norms being gradually phased in by the USA and the EU, as per the UN sponsored Kyoto and Montreal conferences on climate change. The report covers the four most important areas of development viz., natural gas, electric (battery operated), hydrogen and fuel cells as the alternative technology areas for future vehicles. iv. Plan of Development: The report covers the existing situation of air pollution caused by the motor vehicles, public and private. It identifies the major pollutants in the atmosphere, percentage contribution by the transportation sector, the greenhouse gas effects, the new emission norms that are to be gradually phased in by the auto industry and a review of the new technologies under Page 2 development. Major constituents of air pollution are tabulated; greenhouse gases are identified; US and European timetables for adopting new vehicular emission norms have been included; a review of the new fuels under development and recommendations are include. iv. Background: A major cause of air pollution is due to motor vehicles running on gasoline and diesel, fossil fuels, which are exhaustible in nature. The influencing factors for choice of the next generation motor vehicle fuels are greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, energy efficiency, economic production and sustainability. The new fuels must also be as convenient as the conventional fuels. Utilizing the infrastructure and investments that are already in place for production of vehicles as well as the production, refining, transportation and use of fuels is equally important; natural gas “provides an answer today” avers Chuck Dougherty, Program Manager - Alternative Fuel Vehicles, Puget Sound Energy (Adamson, 1999 / 2004). II. A. Vehicular Air Pollution i. Public and private transport vehicles The impact of the transportation sector emissions in widely spread areas of the world can be gauged from a sample of the following statements. In the United States, Europe and New Zealand, contribution to the prevailing air pollution from transport vehicles that use diesel and petroleum is given below: “The transportation sector, in the United States, consumes 65 percent of the total petroleum products supplied…” (Adamson, May 1999 / June 2004). “The emissions from the transport sector have a particular importance because …goods transport by road in Europe… increased by 54% since 1980, passenger transport by road by 46% in the past ten years in the EU …” (European Parliament Fact Sheets, 4.9.2 Air Pollution). “Motor vehicles contribute the majority of the NOx emissions in Auckland, Waikato and Wellington urban areas…” (Ministry for Environment, Govt. of New Zealand). Major pollutants % Contamination directly* due to transportation sector US EU New Zealand Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 33 58 80 Nitrogen oxide (NO2) 45 - - Sulphur oxides (SOx) - - 66 Volatile organic compounds (VOC) 33 - Carbon monoxide (CO) 77 75 84 Page 3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 33 - - (* as per sources mentioned in above paragraphs) Apart from the above chemicals, the emissions also include particulate matter, especially in sizes of less than 10 microns (PM10). The abnormal rise in the levels of PM10 is a health hazard for human beings. Respiratory ailments and allergies are the direct result of exposure to suspended particulate matter. Chemical pollutants mix and react with atmospheric air and fog leading to the production of smog and ground level ozone, both of which are proven to be hazardous to human beings. ii. Greenhouse gases The most talked about ill effect of air pollution, especially from the transportation sector is the greenhouse gas effect. The natural balance of greenhouse gases like water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmospheric air, is upset by the abnormal addition of pollutants, especially of carbon dioxide, by the automobiles. The result is global warming and other climatic changes that are predicted to cause immense damage worldwide. During the UN Conference on Climate Change in Kyoto in December 1997, the EU Member States agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions (mainly carbon dioxide, CO2; also methane CH and chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs) by 8% between 2008 and 2012. (European Parliament Fact Sheets, 4.9.2 Air Pollution). The US Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory study points out that: "…most vehicles produce several times their weight in greenhouse gases each year. Not only does most of the fuel you put in your tank become greenhouse gas emissions, but the carbon in the fuel combines with oxygen in the air, almost tripling the weight of the fuel itself."(http://www.transportation.anl.gov/software/GREET/index.html) Thus it is seen that the transportation sector is a major contributor to the air pollution scene. While many of the developed countries of the world have practically reached saturation levels in the use of private transport vehicles, the large populations of China, India, Russia and Brazil, to name a few of the emerging economies, are now expanding their automobile industries and this will further aggravate the already bad situation. iii. Emission norms In order to combat and control the ill effects of contaminated air on the environment in general and human beings in particular, limits of emission have been imposed by various governments with a time frame within which all the newer vehicles must comply with the new emission norms. The time frame varies for different countries but the ultimate aim is to reach the climate control goals as per Kyoto and Montreal protocols, by all nations sooner or later. In the Page 4 US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) along with some of the state pollution control agencies regulates the emission standards. For the auto industry, a new definition of performance based on emission norms has been given by the EPA as can be seen below and these norms specify a value for limits of pollution in ‘gram per mile’. (EPA Standards in USA, Wikipedia, 2006) Tier 1 (effective from 1994) - different norms for different vehicles. Tier 2 (effective from 2001 to 2003, optional, to be phased in by 2009) – same norms for all vehicles. The other classifications in increasing order of stringency are TLEV (Transitional Low Emission Vehicle), LEV (Low Emission Vehicle), ULEV (Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle), SULEV (Super-Ultra Low Emission Vehicle) and the ZEV (Zero Emission Vehicle). Electric (battery operated) and hydrogen cars can be classified as ZEVs. Even these norms are being further tightened. Coming to Europe, a similar trend of tightening norms is noted. These standards are named Euro 0 , Euro I to Euro V and limits the emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, as given below. (European Emission standards, Wikipedia, 2006) Euro 0 (1988-1992) limits emissions to 12.3 g/kWh CO, 2.6 g/kWh HC, 15.8 g/kWh NOx Euro I (1992-1995) limits emissions to 4.9 g/kWh CO, 1.23 g/kWh HC, 9.0 g/kWh NOx, 0.4 g/kWh particles Euro II (1995-1999) limits emissions to 4.0 g/kWh CO, 1.1 g/kWh HC, 7.0 g/kWh NOx, 0.15 g/kWh particles Euro III (1999-2005) limits emissions to 2.1 g/kWh CO, 0.66 g/kWh HC, 5.0 g/kWh NOx, 0.1 g/kWh particles Euro IV (2005-2008) limits emissions to 1.5 g/kWh CO, 0.46 g/kWh HC, 3.5 g/kWh NOx, 0.02 g/kWh particles Euro V (2008-2012) limits emissions to 1.5 g/kWh CO, 0.46 g/kWh HC, 2.0 g/kWh NOx, 0.02 g/kWh particles Page 5 B. Alternative Technologies i. Current state of development: Alternative sources of energy (fuels) for vehicles that have been under development for sometime are the natural gas, electric batteries, hydrogen and fuel cells. These developments are briefly reviewed below: a. Natural gas According to NGVC.org website (Feb.2006), natural gas is a more environment-friendly fuel compared to gasoline or diesel. Reductions in emission of carbon monoxide by 65-90 percent, non-methane organic gas / nitrogen oxides by 87 percent and carbon dioxide by 20 percent were noted when compared to gasoline vehicle emissions. Reserves of natural gas, both potential and proven have been documented. Energy Information Administration of USA estimated the recoverable volume in the US at 167 trillion cubic feet (tcf) as compared to a total unproven volume of 1191 tcf. (Energy Information Administration (EIA) - Annual Energy Outlook 2002). Worldwide, the most abundant reserves are found in the Middle East, Europe and the former republics of the USSR. In terms of proven reserves, the US share is estimated at just about 3% of the total world reserves (International Energy Annual 1999 – EIA). It is seen that natural gas, though an exhaustible resource, is by no means an insignificant source. b. Electric (battery operated) Electric (battery operated) vehicles are zero emission vehicles per se. Apart from the cost of power for recharging batteries, one needs to take into account the battery replacement costs and offset the gains due to reduction of maintenance costs. However, the power that is needed to recharge the batteries from time to time has to be generated at power stations and to that extent, the source of emission is transferred from the automobiles to the power stations, especially if they are thermal power stations. Japan has taken the lead in the development of electric battery technology for vehicles and the technology has been successfully established. However, the technology has still not found adequate answers to the issues of low range (about 200-225 km) before recharging and heavy battery weight i.e., poor efficiency in terms of energy packed in a given weight. To this extent, the predominant use of these vehicles is restricted to smaller vehicles for inner city use, golf carts etc. c. Hydrogen Hydrogen is another low emission fuel, the exhaust being water vapor and heat. Small amounts of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are emitted due to engine lubricating oils. Produced from different sources like water, methanol and natural gas, it has sustainability. It is economical to use in view of full utilization unlike hydrocarbons. However, safety concerns remain. “Since the U.S. has over 1.3 million miles of transmission and distribution lines carrying Page 6 natural gas to almost every part of the country, a convenient and cost-effective option will be hydrogen reformed from natural gas at local stations”, according to NGVC (NGVC, Feb.2006). Brenda Brevitt says that, “Vehicles could use hydrogen in a variety of ways; with minor alterations all conventional internal combustion engines (ICEs) powered by petrol can be made to burn hydrogen directly. The major stumbling block is the lack of infrastructure for the storage and distribution of hydrogen.” (Brevitt, 2002) d. Fuel cells Fuel cells, on trial since 2004, use hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen in an electrochemical reaction to produce electricity that runs the vehicles. Fuel cell vehicles are zero emission vehicles. They are economical to run if the reformers use water for hydrogen generation, although currently natural gas / methanol are being used. “Fuel cells convert the energy stored in a fuel (for example hydrogen) into electrical energy by a simple electrochemical reaction in which oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water. Each fuel cell type, classified according to the nature of the electrolyte, requires particular materials and fuels and is suitable for different applications. If hydrogen is derived from non-fossil sources, such as renewables, or if waste CO2 from fossil fuel hydrogen production is sequestered, then fuel cells offer the prospect of ‘zero emission’ power for transport and stationary applications.” (Brevitt, 2002) ii. Economic and other considerations Adamson points out that natural gas burns cleaner and hence there is a reduction in maintenance costs on oils and spark plugs. According to him, typical cost of running a bus on (compressed) natural gas at US$0.05 per km is half of that for diesel buses; natural gas is available in plenty and extensive networks of supply pipelines exist in many countries. (Adamson, 2006) Brenda Brevitt, on the other hand maintains that the competitiveness of natural gas vehicles compared with conventional vehicles would depend on a range of factors including ease of refueling, comparative fuel costs and duty, engine lifetimes, performance and manufacturing costs. (Brevitt, 2002) According to Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Resource Center (PPRC, 2004), typically, cost of running an electric motor vehicle is about US$0.01 per km. Electric energy is economical and sustainable if generated from hydel, solar and nuclear sources. Heavy battery weight and frequent recharging are still issues. PPRC also points out that hydrogen as a fuel was still in research and development stage and comparative costs were not available and that hydrogen-powered vehicles, compared to the other alternative fuels were probably far from commercialization and that it was difficult to Page 7 compare the performance and fuel range of hydrogen with either gasoline or other alternative fuels. (PPRC, 2004) PPRC also points out that the cost per mile for fuel cell vehicles is dependent upon the specific fuel used as the source of hydrogen as well as the range of the vehicle. (PPRC, 2004) iii. Other relevant factors From a review of the published research data, it is seen that the solution for vehicular emission control is the use of hydrogen either directly or as the source for fuel cell technology. Hydrogen for fuel cells itself needs to be produced from hydrocarbons or water. Extensive debate is going on about the relative merits of producing hydrogen either on the vehicle itself or at the fuel service station and the opinion is in favor of the latter. Until other sources are established and developed, natural gas for which extensive networks exist in many countries appears to be the choice for production of hydrogen, which will then be used in the fuel cells. III. Research Method Published data: The data presented in this report is entirely based on published material. A bibliography of the various sources consulted is given at the end of the report. The exhaustive data provided by Energy Information Administration (EIA), available at is of particular value in coming to conclusions on the viability of natural gas as an intermediate solution for controlling emissions. The limitations of electric battery vehicles have been well analyzed by Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado, available at . Coming to hydrogen-run vehicles, the Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, published authoritative information on this technology, available at . Finally, the potential of fuel cell vehicles has been high lighted by the US Department of Energy, available at . IV. Recommendation Fuel cell vehicles are the choice in the long run, even if natural gas vehicles enjoy certain advantages in the near future. If production and safe handling of hydrogen from water is established on a mass scale, fuel cell technology offers the highest dividends in terms of environmentally friendly vehicles that are energy efficient and economical to run. Page 8 It is recommended that the efforts to develop fuel cell technology and its usage in all its aspects - right from the sources of hydrogen, location of reformers and development of network of service stations for public convenience (on existing lines for fossil fuels) - be redoubled to accelerate the phasing in of fuel cells and phasing out the fossil fuels within the next five years itself. V. Conclusion Vehicular air pollution is a fact of life. At the same time the beneficial aspects of automobile industry on national economies make transportation an inevitable growth sector. These two contradicting interests have been well recognized and intense efforts are being made all over the world to find solutions that will address emission control on the one hand and sustainable sources of energy on the other. Natural gas and fuel cell technologies appear to be leading in the race for the next generation vehicles. Page 9 Reference List Adamson, K.A, & Peter, P.(Feb.25, 2006). About Natural Gas Vehicles. Retrieved April 16, 2006 from http://www.ngvc.org Adamson, et al., (May 1999/ June 2004). Alternative Fuels for Fleet Vehicles. Retrieved April 16, 2006 from http://listproc.ucdavis.edu/class/200410/mae298e-f04/ att-0002/01-adamson_and_Pearson. Brevitt, B., (Feb. 2002). Alternative Vehicle Fuels, House of Commons Library, Research Paper 2/11, 12. Retrieved April 16, 2006 from http://www.parliament.uk Emission Standards, US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved April 15, 2006 from http:// Read More