Descartes Use of Methodological Skepticism as a Foundation for Knowledge - Essay Example

? DESCARTES USE OF METHODOLOGICAL SKEPTICISM AS A FOUNDATION FOR KNOWLEDGE of “Modern philosophy began, not with Descartes exactly, but with the thing that Descartes made famous: systematic doubt” (Scruton 2004, 16). How does a person know whether the knowledge that he or she claims to have is reliable? Skepticism “is the name for the philosophic position of doubt concerning the reliability of knowledge” (Lavine 1984, 95). Descartes’ goal is to conduct a total reconstruction of human knowledge, based on the methods and principles of mathematics. Through this, Descartes hopes to find his foundational belief from which a reliable, clear and distinct philosophy can be deduced. But how will Descartes arrive at such a foundational principle? Descartes will doubt all his beliefs in order to arrive at the one thing which cannot be doubted further; this is Descartes attempt to build a secure foundation for knowledge. However, “is there anything at all that he can know to be true, that can survive the process of doubt?” (Williams 2005, 57) Descartes’ skepticism is termed methodological skepticism; this is defined as “the use of doubt methodically in order to arrive at true knowledge” (Lavine 1984, 95). In doing so, he first doubts his beliefs on sense perception, which he claims are by nature deceptive. Second, he doubts his beliefs on material objects and the physical world, which are based on sense perception. Third, he doubts his beliefs on natural sciences, which uses objects that are based on sense perception. Fourth, he doubts mathematics. In doing so, he invents an evil demon or genius that conditions his mind and deceives him to fall into error (Greetham 2006, 86). However, Descartes realizes that in order to be deceived, he must exist; in order to doubt, there must be someone doing the doubting. Thus, Descartes arrives at his self-evident principle, which can be stated in Latin as “Cogito, ergo sum” or “I think therefore I am” (Copleston 1958, 91). “This proposition: I am, I exist, is necessarily true each time that I pronounce it, or that I mentally conceive it” (Descartes 2007, 430). So Descartes is now certain of one thing, that is, his existence as a conscious subject; that whenever he is thinking, he is assured of his own existence – but what about the external world? Descartes feared that he may fall into solipsism, the view that “my mind with its thoughts is the only thing that exists, the only reality: and that other persons and the physical world are only ideas within my mind” (Lavine 1984, 100). So in order for Descartes to escape the solitude of solipsism, he has to be able to prove the existence of something other than his own mind. At this point, he sought to prove the existence of God, and bases his proof on his theory of ideas and causes. An idea, for Descartes, is the effect of causes. Herein, he formulates three basic propositions. As Lavine (1984) explains: “there must be as much reality in the cause as in its effect, something cannot proceed from nothing, and what is more perfect cannot proceed from the less perfect” (104). Given this aforementioned background, Descartes (1993) begins with the claim that he has a “clear and distinct idea of God” as a perfect being (177). Since ideas are effects of causes, then something must have caused his having such an idea. And since its cause must have the same magnitude to its effect, and that something perfect cannot come from something less perfect, then God exists as the only possible cause for his idea of a perfect being, for something cannot come from nothing. Therefore, God exits. Given that God exists, how can this prove that the external world exists? Descartes reaches all “these conclusions by the application of a method of systematic doubt” (Kenny 2008, 36). Having established his own existence, as well as the existence of God, Descartes now replaces doubt with certainty. Herein, he comes to know that he gains knowledge of material objects through sense perception. Herein, he finds out what causes his idea of material bodies. In doing so, he claims that he cannot be the cause, for it would go against his nature as a thinking substance. Also, God cannot be the cause for God is not a deceiver. Therefore, material bodies independently exist insofar as the idea of material bodies are caused by themselves. However, this does not mean that material bodies exist as his senses tell them to be. So what is the nature of such material bodies? “Let us now accordingly consider the objects that are commonly thought to be the most distinctly known… take for instance this piece of wax…” (Descartes 82). Herein, Descartes conducts a thought experiment. He observes a piece of wax and identifies its secondary qualities, meaning, its color, taste, smell, texture, all of which we come to know through our bodily senses. But when he puts this piece of wax to flame, all those qualities, which he initially observed, changed. Nevertheless, it is still the same piece of wax. Here, Descartes identifies certain primary qualities that remain constant, namely, figure, the capacity for change and spatial extension. These primary qualities are what define the true nature of material objects. Thus, what he perceives through his senses does not belong to the object but are mere sensations and come from within him. Take note that Descartes started by using the method of doubt in overthrowing all his beliefs. “By practicing the art of doubting, we will become accustomed to assenting only to clear and distinct ideas, and this is the key to Descartes’ whole method” (Thomson 2004, 27). By attaining that one thing which cannot be doubted, he uses this as his foundation for deducing reliable knowledge, for it is through this method of justification that his beliefs count as knowledge (Doepke 2003, 27). Indeed, through a systematic use of doubt, Descartes is thus able to arrive at knowledge, which is clear and distinct to the mind. References Copleston, Frederick. 2003. A History of Philosophy: The Rationalists: Descartes to Leibniz. New York: Continuum. Descartes, Rene. 1993. Meditations on First Philosophy In Focus, edited by Stanley Tweyman. New York: Routledge. Descartes, Rene. 2007. “Meditation II.” In Philosophy 101: Selections from the Works of the Western World’s Greatest Thinkers, edited by Stanley Rosen, 429-437. New York: Gramercy Books. Descartes, Rene. 2008. Discourse on Method. Translated by John Veitch. New York: Cosimo, Inc. Doepke, Frederick. 2003. Philosophy: Confronting the Unavoidable. Belmont: Wadsworth. Greetham, Bryan. 2006. Philosophy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kenny, Anthony. 2008. The Rise of Modern Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. Lavine, T. Z., 1984. From Socrates to Sartre: The Philosophic Quest. New York: Bantam Books. Scruton, Roger. 2004. Modern Philosophy: An Introduction and Survey. London: Pimlico. Thomson, Garrett. 2004. On Modern Philosophy. Belmont: Wadsworth. Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen. 2005. Descartes: The Project of Pure Enquiry. New York: Routledge. Bibliography Copleston, Frederick. A History of Philosophy: The Rationalists: Descartes to Leibniz. New York: Continuum, 2003. Descartes, Rene. Meditations on First Philosophy In Focus, edited by Stanley Tweyman. New York: Routledge, 1993. Descartes, Rene. “Meditation II.” In Philosophy 101: Selections from the Works of the Western World’s Greatest Thinkers, edited by Stanley Rosen, 429-437. New York: Gramercy Books, 2007. Descartes, Rene. Discourse on Method. Translated by John Veitch. New York: Cosimo, Inc., 2008. Doepke, Frederick. Philosophy: Confronting the Unavoidable. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2003. Greetham, Bryan. Philosophy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Kenny, Anthony. The Rise of Modern Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Lavine, T. Z. From Socrates to Sartre: The Philosophic Quest. New York: Bantam Books, 1984. Scruton, Roger. Modern Philosophy: An Introduction and Survey. London: Pimlico, 2004. Thomson, Garrett. On Modern Philosophy. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2004. Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen. Descartes: The Project of Pure Enquiry. New York: Routledge, 2005. Read More