Child Abuse: Prevalence and Policies in the United Kingdom - Essay Example

?Child Abuse: Prevalence and Policies in the United Kingdom “With the acknowledgement that child abuse is a social problem, there have been increasing demands for information about its prevalence. However the definition of child abuse is a social construction and therefore statistical data are bound to be elusive and contradictory” -- -- Ryder, Duncan and Gray (1993) Introduction J.F. Kennedy, the 35th President of United States of America once quoted “children are the world’s most valuable resource and its best hope for future” (www.thinkexisit.com). But what is happening to that valuable resource is a topic for serious discussion in view of the increasing child abuse cases all over the world. The world has pledged to tackle child abuse while many countries have their own policies, laws and legislations providing rights and opportunities to the children. Children day is celebrated all over the world for giving recognition the love of elders towards their children, on different days by various countries and universally on 20th November, to be observed as a day of worldwide fraternity and understanding between children (www.un.org). As this paper aims to establish a concrete evidence about the statement from Ryder et al (1993), the word ‘abuse’ needs to elaborated so as to understand what child abuse is? According to Vanessa, child and family therapist, ‘abuse is something that cannot always be seen – hurts the people on the inside and outside, and the pain feels worse when it is kept a secret’. (Gerrits and Newton, 2010). Basing on the observation made by Vanessa, it could be assumed that child abuse is a malpractice effecting their overall development in all aspects of life; both physically and mentally. However, various definitions have been strategically devised by different authors, organizations and nations to formulate policies, laws and legislations which can tackle, punish and prevent child abuse. Definitions of Child Abuse World Health Organization (WHO) Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention compared and analyzed definitions of abuse from 58 countries leading to a conclusive definition which stated that “child abuse or maltreatment constitutes all forms of physical and/ or emotional ill – treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligible treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power’. According to the Council Report by Royal College of Psychiatrists, London ‘child abuse and neglect include both acts of omission and commission in interactions between adults (or older adolescents) and children that have caused, or are likely to cause, enduring harm to the child. Above definitions have one thing in common which gives importance to negligence of children by their elders. Historical Incidence of Child Abuse Child abuse occurs in variety of forms across the world which came to be recognized only after ‘the battered child syndrome’ was coined in 1962 by Helfer, Kempe and Krugman (Devi, 2008). Child abuse happens when an adult a child trusts or depends on hurts, mistreats, or does not care for them which is against the law. Various researches have led to conclusion that child abuse can be caused by a parent, sibling, coach or a teacher as well as someone they are less close to, such as a friend’s parent (Gerrits, 2010). Violence against children has been manifested in every conceivable manner, physically, emotionally, through neglect, by sexual exploitation and by child labor. Child maltreatment or child abuse is not a new phenomenon as it existed since the beginning of recorded history which thrived in the shadows of privacy and secrecy throughout these years but only came to light due to continuous redefining and re-labeling of the concept (Helfer et al, 1999). Child maltreatment persisted in olden days when the term abuse was not even related to child. If the events of abuses on children are taken into account from the olden days, Whitfield (1995) states that ‘a memorial kind of structure like Vietnam War Memorial which has 50,000 names etched on it, could be built, the size of which will be 1300 times, with the names of children who were abused, sexually only and the size would increase by 7500 times if other forms of child abuse is included. According to Lloyd deMause, a historian who studied childhood and society for over 20 years, pointed out that childhood in the past was routinely filled with terror, neglect and abuse – both physical and emotional. Whitfield (1995) traces the history of child abuse back to The Bible, where there has been recorded evidence of child sale, slavery for sexual purposes, which were common in Greek, Roman and other societies. Unfortunately, child abuse has rich history with nominal research into the history of child abuse. As legends say, past comes haunting in the future, child abuse is still prevailing all over the world making it a nightmare for the nations to eradicate it, but in vain. Historically, children were considered property of their parents who had unrestricted authority over them for all the disciplinary decisions. It is reported that fathers has the right to sell, kill, sacrifice their child in case the child was born deformed, weak or in any other form that than was considered the norm. Sexual abuse within the family was common in olden days and parents used their children to work as laborers in apprenticeships, workhouses, orphanages, placement mills, factories and other industries. It is further reported by Bagnell (1985) that 8000 children were trafficked from the streets of Dublin and London to Canada as slaves to work on farms and in factories. Gradually, the sufferings of children were noticed around the world, thanks to Globe, when its reported in 1886 wrote about the child abuse horrors experienced by these children. Toronto Humane Society, in 1887, came into existence with an objective to prevent cruelty to animals and children. Later, Children’s Aid Society was formed in 1981 to protect the children from all forms of abusive behavior and acts. The first recorded instance of child abuse was during 1873 when Mrs. Etta Wheeler, a church worker found Mary-Ellen, a 9 year old girl shackled to her bed, grossly malnourished, scarred and badly beaten. The incident was reported to the authority that was turned down forcing Mrs. Wheeler to comment in front of American SPCA that ‘animals were protected, but children were not’. Mrs. Wheeler made an appeal to ASPCA that children were members of the animal kingdom and they have the right to live with freedom (www.child-abuse-effects.com). Figure 1: Dynamics of Child Abuse and Its Consequences Prevalence of Child Abuse – World and the United Kingdom Palusci and Fischer (2011) mentioned that the victimization of children through abuse and neglect remains an all too common occurrence. It is mentioned that 12.3 per 1000 children were victimized during 2002 in United States with neglect and child abuse reporting system documented over 900,000 substantiated victims of child maltreatment. Child abuse or violence against children is seen as an immediate threat to the development of humankind as violence leads to more violent attitude and disregard to the society. The menace is not limited to few countries or regions but spread all over the world and is engulfing the innocence of child. It is further stated that reports of infanticide, cruel and humiliating punishment, neglect and abandonment, sexual abuse and other forms of violence against children date back to ancient civilizations. Most of the child abuse cases reported occurs within the homes apart from being abused from their caretakers in school and in the work places. UNICEF described different forms of child abuse ranging from corporal punishment, cruel and disregarding punishment at home, schools and at workplace. It is further mentioned that continuous social acceptance on some types of violence against children and their justification for such acts has made it a common factor in every region of the world. According to study carried out by WHO, it was estimated that almost 53000 children who died were due to homicides whereas in a survey carried out by Global School – Based Student, about 20% to 65% of school children were bullied verbally or physically at schools in developing countries as well as in industrialized countries. International Labor Organizations (ILO) estimated that there were some 306 million children aged between 5 and 17 years employed during 2008. According to the data provided by ILO, it is understood that employment among 5 to 14 years has decreased by 20 million as compared to the year 2004 from 196 to 176 million whereas at the same time, employment among the age group 15 to 17 years increased by 2 millions. Asia- Pacific region has the most number of child laborers aged between 5 to 17 years which is nearly 113 million followed by Sub Saharan Africa with 65.1 million child laborers working in various sectors (Diallo, et al, 2010). According to the United Nations for Children’s Fund (UNICEF) report on the ‘State of the World’s Children 2011’, it is mentioned that 29% of children work as child labor in Africa which was similar in the case of least developed countries while 16% in developing countries. Child marriage was more prevalent in South Asia with 46% children getting married under the age of 15 years while violence was noticed only in Middle East and North African region with 90% of children aged between 2 to 14 years having experienced violence for disciplined behavior (UNICEF, 2011). United Kingdom is ranked 157 by UNICEF in the category of under – 5 mortality rate which however does not clarifies the volume of occurrence of child abuse in the country (UNICEF, 2011). The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), founded in 1884 has been integral part to the development of child protection policy and practice in United Kingdom. NSPCC reports that there are approximately 46,700 children, who are at risk of abuse while one among four adults i.e. 25.3% experienced severe maltreatment during childhood. According to NSPCC research, large numbers of children suffer severe abuse and neglect by their caretakers at various places. According to Health and Personal Social Services statistics for the year 2001, it was reported that 24 children out of every 10,000 were registered on child protection in England. Overall 26,800 children were registered for child protection in the year 2001 as compared to 32,400 registrations in 1997. It is evident from the graph (Figure 2) below that neglect is major factor for children getting registered for protection followed by physical and sexual abuse. 12,900 children got registered for child protection as 31st March 2001 due to neglect from their parent, caretakers, while 7300 children registered due to physical abuse (HPSS, 2001). Development of sociological theories relating to child abuse Kendall (2008) mentioned that a variety of psychological and sociological theories have been developed to describe the positive process of socialization in child abuse. Barth and Blythe (1983) stated that despite widespread agreement that stress contributes to child abuse, the exact relationship between the two is indeterminate. The significance of the relationship between stress and abuse, recognized early and research heavily has wide consensus. Identification of consistencies and contradictions on abuse and stress may encourage better prediction of abuse and re-abuse. Various studies carried out researchers have resulted in three models of child abuse: phenomenological, life change and social. Phenomenological model suggests that abusive behavior is unleashed by symbolic or concrete incidents perceived as stressful by adults who are susceptible to abuse from inadequate upbringings (Barth and Blythe 1983). This clearly explains that person treating the opposite person with abusive behavior has already been the victim of abuse during his childhood days, making him violent and loss control during precipitating incidents which are varied, unexpected and idiosyncratic like child rubbing, scouring powder into carpet, child drinking a sibling infant’s bottle or a child defecating in a laundry basket. Life Change Model by Blair Justice and his colleagues posits a series of changes in life situation as contributing to the potential to abuse. Justice Blair and Duncan while distinguishing their theory from phenomenological and social model mentioned that life crisis is the major force behind the abusive behavior of elder that predisposes them to abuse. It is further stated that day to day economic pressure and stress is not the reason behind abusive behavior but unpredictability of all kind changes thus creating shock, counter shock, resistance and ultimate exhaustion and that exhaustion triggers abuse similar to Selye’s psychological model. Social model explains the relationship between child abuse and stress which rests on accumulating evidence from child abuse researchers that diminished social or ecological resources. Social model theory suggests that social isolation is manifest in child abuse and Garbarino assumes that isolation is dangerous and can be lethal. According to the social theory, a socially supported model may evaluate a child’s rough housing or back talking as playful; a socially deprived adult is more likely to be irritable and appraise and respond to the situation negatively. Interventive possibilities based on the social model range from social networking to broad reforms aimed at eliminating poverty. It is suggested that allocation of wide range of resources and service will reduce socio-ecological stress (Barth and Blythe 1983). According to Hobbs et al (1999) sociologists view child abuse as an aspect of much wider social issues as it was only because of the challenges of judicial policies relating to sex crimes and rape against women that the scene was set for sexual abuse of children. It is further pointed that other issues of social justice are involved in child abuse wherein poverty, unemployment, racism and inequality, place individuals including children at risk of neglect and abuse as individuals within that society. Kay (2004) mentioned that sociological theories focus on social environments in which child abuse is more likely to occur and which are also linked to poverty and social deprivation including poor housing, overcrowding and lack of amenities, inadequate income, financial worries and education disadvantage. It is further mentioned that economic and social deprivation in an unequal society may add to the stresses and pressures among individuals and in families creating chances of occurrence of child abuse. Child abuse takes place because of complex sets of interlinked social and personal factors affecting adults and children in similar manner. Feminist theory explains the causes of child abuse which is linked to child sexual abuse focusing on imbalances of power in our society and the fact the children actually possess no rights as individuals within that society. Feminists explain that child sexual abuse is a result of the fact that men posses the majority of power in our society which is most of the times abused, nowadays. Pandey (2007) while associating various sociological theories with child abuse mentioned that cultural explanations focus on broad cultural forces that may promote abusive activities whereas structural characteristics of the family suggests the demographic characteristics of the family contributing to child maltreatment. Macro level sociological theories such as strain theory, social bonding theory and deterrence theory discuss the causers of existence of child maltreatment in the society or why some segment of society experience more violence that others. All the theories and models mentioned above specify and clarify that child abuse is a social issue and serious problem of the society. Laws, Policy and Procedures for the protection of children According to Myers (1998) professional from social work, psychology, medicine, nursing, education and related disciplines shoulder the major responsibility for responding to child abuse and neglect thereby playing the primary role in creating awareness in the society while law plays a very important secondary role of defining and protecting the rights of children from abuse and neglect. Dr James A Gordon (2009) reports that only few nations have mandatory reporting laws for child abuse and neglect which was found during the WHO survey in 2002 wherein only 33 out of 58 countries had mandatory reporting laws. The introduction of mandatory reporting laws was for the early detection of child abuse so as to forestall the occurrence of serious injuries. UNICEF regards protecting children from violence, exploitation and abuse as an integral component of protecting their rights to survival, growth and development as underlined in its Medium Term Strategic Plan and Child Protection Strategy. UNICEF’s child protection strategy incorporates child protection into national and decentralized planning processes, including social protection strategies, ensure that social protection reform contributes to the achievement of child protection outcomes, promote justice for children, strengthen coordination amongst child protection, strengthen the social welfare sector, support social change by increasing knowledge and data collection about specific challenges that concern social norms and practices harmful to children (UNICEF, 2008). According to NSPCC (2010) child protection in United Kingdom is governed by various laws, sections and guidelines being continuously amended, updated and revoked by Westminster, the Welsh Assembly, the Northern Ireland Assembly and Scottish Parliament which is known as statutory law. Child protection laws, in the United Kingdom, can be divided into civil laws and criminal laws. NSPCC since its inception in 1884, was influential in drafting the legislation to protect children under the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 which includes a list of offences against children referred to as Schedule One offences. Later Children Act 1989 was introduced in an effort to reform and clarify the existing plethora of laws affecting children and gave great importance to the child’s welfare. Apart from national laws, children’s rights are protected and governed by United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child 1989 which gives protection to children from abuse and gives them the right to express their views. The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporate the European Convention on Human Rights which serves to protect the right of all human beings irrespective of age, gender, caste, creed or religion which mean it also includes children. The Children’s Commissioner for Wales Act 2001 was created to safeguard and promote the rights and welfare of children. Later in 2004, Children Act was amended so that every children could achieve the outcomes of Every Child Matters i.e. be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and achieve economic well being, Sex Offences Act 2003 was introduced to protect the children from sexual abuse from elders. There are various laws and legislations, both nationally and internationally, aimed at protecting the children from abuse, maltreatment and neglect, but lack of reporting of incidence makes the law ineffective and limited (NSPCC, 2010). Child Abuse and Society As it is said human being is a social animal and has to live with and among the society. Helfer et al (1999) assuming that every child has right to receive at least minimal adequate care in democratic society, it is necessary to ascertain the level of each child’s safety. Korbin (1981) mentioned that the issues of child abuse and neglect are rooted in the unique social structure and norms held in any society at a given point in time. It is further mentioned that there is no international criteria for defining child abuse and neglect which gives rise to moral difficulties of judging other’s people child rearing practices are clear. It is pointed out that parents look to raise their children in accordance to the values of the society. According to General Strain Theory developed Robert Agnew, inability to cope with the societal norms may lead to child abuse, neglect, adverse relations with parent and teachers, negative school experience, adverse relationships with peers, neighborhood problems and homelessness (http://www.criminology.fsu.edu). Societal norms play a vital role in child’s upbringing thereby forcing the parents to force their children to work hard, discipline and punish. Baumrind (1994) mentioned that the primary care giving environment – the family – is itself embedded in a complex ecosystem that impacts family processes through conditions existing in the larger society. Poor families are more likely to be subject to public scrutiny and thus to official reports of abuse and neglect. Child abuse is a response to stress and a sense of powerlessness while neglect is a reaction of helplessness to the parents’ inability to provide, one would expect disproportionately more child maltreatment to occur among African American families than among Caucasian families. Finally, cultural conflicts in defining child maltreatment arises due to disagreement concerning cultural differences in child care in various regions whereas in reality, it is the dominant culture in any society that sets the prevailing child-rearing standards just as its sets the standards for other behaviors (Helfer et al, 1999). The way of living of an individual in definitely dominated by the society as it has laid down certain rules, norms and standards which an individual has to follow so as to remain within the society. Statement United Kingdom has formulated various laws and legislations along with guidelines and policies to protect the rights of children. Apart from national laws, children are protected from international legislations which ensure safety and promote welfare and education. Though mandatory reporting of child abuse and neglect is carried out in few nations like United States, the Netherlands; it is an exception in the United Kingdom (Wilson and James, 2007). Child abuse should include society intervention so as to promote the development of child by prevention abuse. Statistics of world reveal the child abuse in form of physical and emotional abuse is rampant in least developed countries whereas child labor huge in Asian countries, as per United Nations report. In the United Kingdom, Department of Health through HPSS reported that 24 out of 10000 children is victim of child abuse wherein neglect is the most registered case at 12900 followed by physical abuse with 7300 registrations. As mentioned earlier, mandatory reporting is an exception in the United Kingdom, it allows the abusers to escape from the law and leaving children’s more vulnerable to abuse. Similarly, the statistics revealed by the United Nations in its report on ‘The State of the Worlds’ Children 2011’, data for most of the nations have not been collected and are not categorically mentioned relating to child abuse i.e. neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, violence, etc. It should be noted that though there are mandatory laws governing the public to report the cases of child abuse, most of cases go unreported making the data unreliable and incomplete. Moreover, the international and respective national organization should carry out surveys and collect data which can analyze and estimate the actual rate and trend of child abuse so as to formulate viable, strict and effective policies to protect the rights of children. In spite of so many years of research, studies and surveys, the statistical data on child abuse is elusive and contradictory as stated by Reder et al (1993). Conclusion Child abuse is a social problem which needs societal intervention at large. Baumrind (1994) suggests creation of child abuse prevention network which should be able to provide culturally sensitive classes in parenting for high school youth, treatment programs for abused and neglected children and their parent, etc. Society has to play an important role in eliminating all forms of violence by changing patriarchal and sexist practices, promoting respect for all family members, develop programs to teach children about abuse and the tactics to handle various types of abuse, change the attitude that children are property of parents so as to protect children from sexual abuse and many more campaigns to create awareness among parents as well as children which may help to eradicate abusive behavior in the society (Nelson, 2001). References 1. United Nations, Universal Children’s Day, http://www.un.org 2. Famous Quotes, Thinkexist, www.thinkexist.com 3. Gerrits, J and Newton, S (2010) Child Abuse, Straight Talk About, Vol. 1, Crabtree Publishing Company, China 4. 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Wilson K and James A.L. (2007) The child protection handbook: the practitioner's guide to safeguarding children, Ed.3, Elsevier Health Sciences, US 28. Reder, P, Duncan S and Gray M (1993) Beyond blame: child abuse tragedies revisited, Routledge, US 29. Baumrind D (1994) The Social Context of Child Maltreatment, Family Relations, Vol. 43, No. 4, Family Processes and Child and Adolescent Development, pp. 360-368 Read More