The Prevention and Reform of Prostitution in Victorian England - Essay Example

?Your The prevention and reform of prostitution in Victorian England With the expansion of Victorian Empire, economic insecurity and class differences increased in London(Anderson 1).East End of London was not only topographically separate from metropolis but economically and spiritually as well(Rumbelow 30).Known as “Outcast London”, East End was considered a shame for British Empire. West Enders considered it the epitome of social evils that further stimulated class and racial differences (Walkowitz 195).The perception that East End was a symbol of immorality, poverty, and criminality deeply penetrated in East Enders that they accepted poverty and other social evils as their inevitable and unchangeable fate (Walkowitz 2).Poverty and continuous under-employment subjected thousands of East Enders, particularly women, to never-ending poverty (Rubinstein qtd. in Burns). Enduring the pains of poverty, these women found themselves incapable of reconciling with Victorian ideals of purity and get into prostitution. For them, earning for a living was more immediate and harsh reality (Cooper 6).However, society and state always put considerable efforts to curb and regulate the practice. The paper discusses different forms of regulations and reforms that were implemented to prevent prostitution in Victorian England. During Victorian age, England experiences economic and social issues which were accompanied by industrialization (Haggard qtd. in Burns).The paternalistic Victorian society was inclined towards wealth accumulation in the form of property and was rigidly divided into classes. Wealth was concentrated in a small upper-class who was ignorant of poverty and poor. Victorians had puritanical conscience when it came to gender and sexuality (Pearson 11). Men and women owned entirely different spheres of society. Public sphere belonged to men while women belonged to private sphere or home(Anderson 13).Those who were outside private spheres were considered public property. According to Rubinstein, absence of factory work, dock and construction workers, sailor population on shore, immigrants and slumming city male experienced women entering into prostitution as profession (11 qtd. in Burns).Economic insecurity compelled even the married women to work as prostitutes during low times of their seasonal works 1(Cooper 30). 1. Major Causes of Prostitution It is often believed that the men who seduced and urged women to get into prostitution were upper-class male and victims (girls) were either very poor or their domestic servants. However, Bartley argues that such ideas of seduction are not more than myth (4).Some stress that men enticed young girls with money and or toys or procured them from brothels by convincing them that they will help in entering the domestic service. Reformers believed that female child between the ages of eleven to fifteen were either kidnapped or lured into prostitution; approximately four hundred men earned their livelihood by doing this. However Bartley doubts any of such causes of prostitution because he asserts they lack evidence, he asserts that most of the girls were convinced by other girls in the trade (4).Drinking is also closely linked with the practice because it lowers the moral values and most women were considered to be drunk when commit it first time. Rescue workers, missionaries, magistrates, policemen, law officials, and reform workers believed that there were complex social, psychological, economic factors are involved, in addition to the idea that prostitutes were the victims of social injustice and male sexual profligacy (Bartley 5).Religious reformers believed in training and reforming girls who repent. They also strengthened the repeal movements (McHugh 187).Numerous evidences; however, confirm poverty and economic reasons as the major contributing factor to prostitution. For instance, a prostitute known as ‘Swindling Sal’ reveals the reason of her coming into prostitution: “I was a servant gal away down in Birmingham. I got tired of workin’ and slavin’ to make the livin’,and getting a--bad one at that; what o’five pun’ a year and yer grub, I’d sooner starve, I would...Soldiers is good...but they don’t pay...So I says to myself, I’ll go to Lunnon, and I did... It is a queer sort of life [current life in London] (qtd. in Mayhew 223-224) 2. Hierarchy of Prostitutes Prostitutes never constituted a homogenous group in Victorian era. Generally, in accordance to the prevalent social stratification of the time, all the prostitutes were categorized in a hierarchy (qtd. in Bartley 3).Henry Mayhew identified six major classes among them: demimondaines; kept mistresses; park women ;women of sailors and soldiers; low lodging house women; and thieves’ women. Moreover, Mathew categories prostitutes with reference to the male population that they served rather than their own social standing(qtd. in Bartley 3).This classification is quite similar to other categorizations which simplify the composition of prostitute population in nineteenth century to an exaggerated extent. However, they do represent the diversity of male group in society that these prostitutes served (Bartley 3). Recue or reform workers identified that majority of prostitute population consisted; dressmakers, shop girls, seamstresses, barmaids, shop girls, agricultural laborers, bonnet makers, flower girls, milliners, and particularly domestic servants (Bartley 3). Chaplain of London’s Millbank Prison identified that 40 per cent of 16,000 interviewed prostitutes were domestic servants (qtd. in Bartley 3). Rescue workers also identified that most of the prostitutes had served as domestic servants once in their life time. In another instance, a Salvation Army register confirmed that majority (88 per cent) of reclaimed prostitutes were former domestic servants. No doubt, most of the prostitutes identified by rescue workers or police were devastatingly poor and belonged to working class (Bartley 3-4). 3. Social Attitudes and victimization Victorian social attitude was complex and appeared as contradictory responses towards sexuality. Increasing pressures from industrialization, demographic discrepancy, increasing number of medical professionals, and perceptions about a women’s position in society strengthened the concerns about prostitution as a social issue. Polarised perceptions about women as good or evil became significantly disruptive. Corrupted “fallen” women of street was the offset of pure women or “angel in the house” who served and saved the family from rough capitalist world2(Self 26).The ‘pure women’ ideology was the product of quasi-religious sentiments. She was considered to be a symbolic confirmation and true representation of Christian faith and a served as taster of heavenly love and bliss (Trudgill 28). Conversely, working-class women with her red hands and muscular arms, was considered to be sexually available and approachable for men.3Working-class women was never a part of private sphere, therefore, social construction of marriage and prostitution drove and reinforced class and women differences. Angle in home belonged to private life and identified with assets and riches while working women belonged to public life which was entirely a male domain symbolized by mutual possession and service (Self 26).Being a part of public sphere, these prostitutes were never safe and often been beaten, threatened, raped, and tortured by their customers, pimps, lovers, relatives and sometimes murdered brutally, Jack the Ripper is a well-known murderer who killed four prostitutes (qtd. in Flowers 64). During Victorian era, prostitution was not illegal but denounced practice. Society rejected it, therefore, numerous legal restrictions left its legality to name only. Prostitutes used to be penalized by legal system because of their status of prostitute. Even the actions which didn’t constitute a violation of law if done by ‘respectable’ women were considered unlawful for prostitutes (Bartley 4). For instance, loitering is not a criminal act in itself, but it became illegal if the woman who is perceived to be a prostitute did it (qtd. in Bartley 4). 4. Statistical Evidence Prostitution as practice remained alarming for reformers; however, there are certain numerical inconsistencies associated with the extent of prostitution practice during Victorian period (qtd. in Bartley 2).For instance, mid-century statistics for London varies from 5,000 and 220,000 that amount to nearly 7 per cent of the then population. Some suggested the existence of half a million in England; however, police record maintained 30,000. Similarly, the number of prostitutes who were indicted was even less. For instance, only 7,119 women were put to trial for prostitution offences during 1860(qtd. in Bartley 2). It is significant that police records appear to be remarkably consistent over the course of nineteenth and early twentieth century. For instance, 7,537 women were prosecuted for prostitution. The above discussed disparities in different statistics were due to the methods of data collection and collectors themselves. Broader definition and confusion also translated into higher numbers. For instance, some sources regarded single mothers, courtesans, and women cohabiting with men as prostitutes while others quoted police statistics which only recorded the prosecuted prostitutes, therefore, it reports allegedly lower number of prostitutes. In some cases, police record also varied significantly. Considering unrestrained growth of prostitution, Liverpool Chief Constable confirmed the existence of thirty to fifty brothels in only one street While Chief Constable of Sheffield asserted and maintained that there were no brothels in his area.4 Another corrupt police superintendent dismissed the chances of prostitution in Manchester by producing the altered evidence (qtd. in Bartley 3). Nonetheless, it was commonly accepted that London, ports (such as Liverpool) and army towns (such as Colchester) held the highest number of prostitutes, followed by cities (such as Manchester) and resort towns (such as Brighton).For example, in 1881 police sent for trial 5,942 women in London, 4,615 in Liverpool, 2,091 in Manchester and 477 in Birmingham. (qtd. in Bartley 3) Country fairs were also suspected to be used for demoralizing youth in a systematized manner (qtd. in Bartley 3). Surprisingly, prostitution was comparatively less prevalent in factory towns, for instance, in Oldham, 66 prostitutes were out to trial during 1881(qtd. in Bartley 3).The practice was limited to certain areas in the cities and towns. For instance, Charing Cross, Regent Street, the Haymarket, and the West End; in Manchester, Oxford Street was infamous and known as ‘Dirty Mile’; in Liverpool the amphitheater where refreshment area was the centre of unrestricted acts of indecency(Bartley 3). In addition, Domville Dance Hall in Lime Street was infamous for ‘vice ran riot’ where men and women held their orgies (qtd. in Bartley 3) and Zoological Gardens are some of the most notorious places. These women must have worked somewhere else as well, furthermore, there had been numerous discreet brothels which remained out of police and social reformers sight (Bartley 3). 5. State Regulation Victorian and Edwardian reformers accepted the image of Tess from Thomas Hardy’s novel, Tess of the D’Urbervilles in which Hardy portrays Tess as ‘ruined maid’ being seduce and betrayed to complete destruction in the end. Sexual impurity leading to prostitution was a major concern of Victorian age. As a social evil, it drew attention from all spheres of life, such as, the state, the church, philanthropists, feminists, medical professionals and others who proposed certain solutions to control and consequently end this practice. There were numerous fears arising from this practice, such as, threats to respectable world, marriages, the families, the homes, and to the whole nation. The whole scenario led to the state efforts to regulate and then reform the prostitutes and to thwart and to inhibit the prostitution practice (Bartley, 1). 5.1. Vagrants Acts With increasing unemployment, rootless people, and unavailability of work, government concerns about prostitution increased. In 1806, Patrick Colguhoun assessment highlighted that there were ninety thousand vagrants among ten million residents of England (qtd. in Self 38).The Vagrants Acts of 1824 was implemented by state in order to ensure social stability and prostitute was again incorporated in a loosely defined category of ‘vagrant’. The Act caused concerns among poor because of the investigating law provisions5 that suspected an individual ‘wandering abroad’ and required to give clarifications about him or her (Self 38).Particularly, if any woman was found in a street or road behaving indecently or riotously, for instance, fighting, drunk and disorderly, and soliciting, she is entitled as disorderly thus subjected to one month prison and harsh labour while further offenses involve longer term. The 1824 Act was the first to coin the term ‘common prostitute’6and regarded them as distinguishable legal subject (Self 38). 5.2. Police Acts Victorian vagrancy was accompanied by gradual increase in criminal offenses. According to an estimate by Linonel Rose, criminal offenses ratio became quadrupled between 1806 and 1826(qtd. in Self 38).Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel introduced a series of reforms between 1823 and 1826.It included a series of reforms, in addition to the formation of a ‘New Police’ in order to tame and administer disorder, insanitary conditions and impoverished residents (qtd. in Self 38).Police Acts7 were passed in 1839 and 1847 which were responsible for policing of prostitution. The sections dealing with prostitution were similar to Vagrants Act and attributed ‘common prostitute’ as specific category of the person (Self 39). 5.3. The Metropolitan police Act The Metropolitan police Act 1839 and Town Police Clauses Act 1847 ordered the arrest of common prostitute who solicit in public sphere which will cause annoyance for other residents or passengers. Though both Acts imposed two pounds of fine if found guilty, Town Police Clauses Act 1847 permitted imprisonment for a short time period. Increasing number of police and establishment of local government accelerated the proliferation of Acts and similar provisions in other laws. These multifarious Acts were aimed at regulating street prostitution while the opponents refer to them as ‘solicitation laws’ (Self 39).Authority of investigating prostitutes legitimized police invasion into working-class communities (Walkowitz 1992). 5.4. Industrial Schools Amendment Act Industrial Schools Amendment Act 1880 authorized police to withdraw children from suspected place (brothels) and admit them in industrial schools (Self 40).Walkowitz considered it ‘blackmailing’ because it refrain poor owners of house or room from taking prostitutes as lodger who feared losing their children (311). Training poor on moral grounds became the campaign for middle class who legitimized powerful measures in order to reform prostitution, such as, legalizing various asylums and penitentiaries. However, the new police failed to end prostitution, reform drinking habits, and restrict festivals (Self 40).Therefore, it was advocated that such activities should be licensed rather than tried to be abolished by sanctions (Uglow 27). Acton attributed prostitution to be inevitable and ineffaceable referring that best way out was melioration. Therefore, he supported the Continental system of regulation that involved regular medical examination and registration. However, his proposed vaginal inspection8 was attributed as ‘instrumental rape’ by prostitutes (qtd. in Self 27). The rise of medical expert, coupled with the high level of venereal infection in the armed forces, had a profound effect upon the way in which the prostitute was understood. She was represented as a ‘reservoir of pollution’, an ‘emissary of death’ and a threat to both the physical and spiritual health of the nation. Fear of the prostitute was resolved through measures of control... (Self 27) 5.5. The Contagious Diseases Acts The Contagious Diseases Acts (CD Acts) 1864, 1866, and 1869 were implemented in order to permit and make paid sex safe for armed forces. Different institutions were established to reform individual prostitutes. In addition, preventive organizations were founded to curtail the underlying causes of prostitution (Bartley, 2). Furthermore, Bartley examines different forms of reform institutions, such as, large penitentiaries to small homes, all of the set ups tried to transform former prostitutes into morally acceptable, honourable women (2). Contagious Diseases Acts permitted to police to arrest even the women who are suspected to be prostitutes and justified their action by attributing it as preventive and regulating measures against venereal disease. Fear for the disease was far greater than infection itself, basic purpose of the legislation was to protect male clients and their ‘pure’ wives (Cooper 31-32). Such sexual double standards of Victorian society subjected prostitutes and unmarried mothers to the reforms and regulations while ignoring their male partners. Cultural anxieties and discomfort over the lack of control is evident in the ‘fallen’ and ‘pure’ women ideology(Burns).Therefore, Rubinstein asserts that prostitution was used as a measure of public health, social morals, and poverty(Anderson 4).It was entirely against this backdrop that Jack the Ripper appeared. Economic constraints urged these women to stay on streets alone till late night, therefore, easy access and women’s own interest made this particular class victim of Jack (11 qtd. in Burns). 5.5. Criminal Law Amendment Act In order to rise the consent age of female and criminalizing those who had sex with juvenile prostitutes rather than the only target, prostitute her, several efforts were made. As a result, The Criminal Law Amendment Act(1885) was passed that included other restrictive provisions for pimps, brothel keepers, the act of soliciting, and Labouchere Amendment that illegalized sexual association between men(Mullin 24).It was the first time when prostitution was seen from another dimension and others integral figures of the practice were criminalized. Prostitution has always been a controversial issue among Victorian observers. Concerns over moral grounds occasionally urged the authorities to regulate the practice. In her book, Prostitution, prevention and reform in England, Paula Bartley (2) assesses the changes in reforms and argues that the prevention movement materialized because of the failure of reforms initiatives. Ladies’ Association for the Care of Friendless Girls was one of the important preventive organizations that worked on eliminating the major reasons of prostitution. Main purpose of founding this organization was to educate young women who were perceived to be at risk, to assist single mothers in their first detention, and finally to pass the legislation that protects women’s virtue. During late nineteenth century, the prostitution began to be associated with ‘feeble mindedness’ and it happened due to changing attitudes within Victorian society, such as, tendency to provide care for mentally challenged people, attitude towards female madness, for the development of eugenics, and acceptance and inclination towards charitable work. Soon it became evident that preventive movements were not enough for suppressing the prostitution, social purity workers strived to curb it and to create a morally acceptable environment in which prostitution practice would cease. While investigating the contradictions within social purity movements, Bartley concludes that all the efforts to curb prostitution eventually proved unproductive. 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