The Theory of Functional Grammar - Essay Example

Functional Grammar Introduction The theory of functional grammar evaluates the context of the natural language usage and in particular relates to the theoretical basis for the organisation of language in its natural form. Leading proponent Dik highlights the essence of functional grammar theory as follows: “When one takes a functional approach to the study of natural languages, the ultimate question one is interested in can be formulated as: How does the natural language user (NLU) work? How do speakers and addresses succeed in communicating with each other through the use of linguistic expressions?”(Dik, 1997, 1). Therefore, essentially, the functional grammar linguistic paradigm evaluates the organisation of natural language and Dik asserts the essence of functional grammar theory pertaining to how natural language usage demonstrates knowledge, beliefs and practical behaviour (Dik, 1997, 1). The focus of this paper is to apply functional grammar theory and critically evaluate the lexico-grammatical meaning of the sample three texts, all of which involve instructional and educational interactions between adults and children in differing contexts. To this end, it is submitted at the outset that whilst classic functional grammar theory has often been rooted in the context of usage; in considering the texts it is important to consider the social backdrop. On this basis, it is posited that the relationship of speech to social experiences and sociolinguist theory pertaining to the correlation between language and society is imperative to consider the lexico-grammatical function of natural word usage in contemporary functional grammar theory. Accordingly, in Section 2 I shall evaluate the central features of lexico-grammatical analysis as applied to the texts, followed by a discussion of the sociolinguistic backdrop in Section 3. It is submitted as a central proposition in this paper that the central lexicon-grammatical features of the three texts are intrinsically intertwined with the social backdrop. 2. Definition of Lexico-grammatical features As highlighted in the previous section, the essence of functional grammar is the theory of language organisation and usage (Dik, 1997). If we consider this proposition in context of the three sample texts; Text 1 clearly demonstrates the “knowledge” facet of functional grammar through the use of instruction followed by question. The knowledge is conveyed in the instructional statements: “hold a ruler on the edge of a table. Press down the end and let go,” followed by the questions “can you hear a sound? What can you see?” The short sentences enable “knowledge” being conveyed in the instruction to be user friendly in targeting a younger audience. The ensuing questions further force the target audience to participate and create intended pauses for the purpose of conveying the knowledge through the grammatical typography. Similarly in Text 2, the use of language clearly reflects the mother/child relationship in conveying practical behaviour of familiarity through the phrasing such as “like the one in the garden”, “yeah it does, doesn’t it?” Moreover, if we consider the archetypal lexicon-grammatical “structure”, Eggins argues that the term “lexicon-grammatical structure” refers to the “sequence arrangement of constituents of the intermediate stratum of language, the stratum of “words and structures” (Eggins, 2004, p.25). As such, it is evident that the central factor when considering the lexicon-grammatical structure of text is to evaluate the ranking hierarchy of the clause sentence to determine the “upper boundary of grammatical relations” (Eggins, 2004, p.25). Essentially, this enables us to determine the grammatical relations between the highest “rank” and lowest “rank” in the grammatical organisation to determine the central meaning of the language usage (Eggins, 2004, p.25). For example, in Text 2, the mother’s use of pauses throughout her explanation of the delicate subject matter and use of words such as “hastily” and “old bird” arguably operate as “words” in the medium rank within the lexico-grammar hierarchy to reinforce the clause subject of explaining the sensitive subject of death to a child. Additionally, Eggins asserts that “Lexico-grammatical analysis involves identifying the elements we find at each rank and describing the sequences and combinations in which they can occur to give us clauses accepted as “possible” as well as the “usual” (Eggins, 2004, p.26). For example, in Text 2, the use of the subjects “birds”, “it” and the “–ing” morphemes reinforce that it is the bird that has died; which in turn provides a mental image of the scene in which the parent is explaining causality of death to her child. Additionally, the use of spaces and punctuation marks in certain odd places reflect the mother’s thought process in answering the child’s question. In turn, this provides the reader with sufficient lexico-grammar to decipher the sense out of the text. Similarly, in Text 3, there are continuous references to pauses and punctuation marks in odd places, which serve the same purpose of enabling the reader to fill in the gaps created by the pauses to picture the scene and the essence of what is being communicated via the lexicon-grammatical structure. On this basis, it is submitted that the interrelationship between the lexico-grammar hierarchy ranking words in turn changes the reader’s perceptions about the three texts to slow down our process in reading the texts. For example, we know from the outset that all three texts are educational texts within different contexts. As such, the reader is likely to approach the texts with preconceived opinions. However, the different approach in each text plays with existing conventions in language to attract reader response and engagement in the text. If we apply this rationale to Text 1 by analogy, it is evident that whilst being an instructional book on sound for children; the use of questions not only increases reader participation in the text; it further slows down the reader’s pre-existing perceptions; thereby “de-automating the reading process so that we really take in what we’re reading” (Eggins, 2004, p.26). Moreover, the repeated use of questions in this manner in Text 1 again applies the technique of forcing the reader to engage and make out the “sense” of the real meaning being conveyed by the text. Accordingly, the interrelationship between the hierarchical “ranks” in all three texts serves to reinforce Eggins’ argument that “text depends on the meaningful use of the codes of the two lower strata of language: the phonological and the lexicon-grammatical codes” (Eggins, 2004, p.27). For example, in Text 3, whilst the organisation of the text is chaotic; the use of dialogue and multiple speakers make sense on the grounds that they comply with pre-existing phonological combinations of the English language. Moreover, the placement of the wording and use of grammatical pauses enables us to feel what the words mean and understand the classroom exchange better. This in turn reinforces the essence of the lexico-grammatical model in interrelating word class rankings to make sense of the language. It is further submitted that this is the central underlying objective of language in ensuring unification of text as a whole; which is highlighted by Halliday and Hassan’s proposition that “A text is best regarded as a SEMANTIC unit: a unit not of form but of meaning” (1976, In Eggins, 2004, p.28). It is submitted that this proposition is reinforced by the function of grammar demonstrating behaviour and knowledge in a social context. Indeed, the sociolinguistic function of language is arguably reinforced by the lexico-grammatical structures or word choice and morphemes, which I shall now evaluate in section 3. 3. The Lexico-Grammatical Paradigm and Sociolinguistics As highlighted in the previous section, the essential role of the lexico-grammatical model is to unify the text as a whole to reinforce the meaning of language. To this end, it is submitted that the incorporation of lexicon-grammatical codes such as word clauses and morphemes are intrinsically interrelated to the social backdrop. As such, the lexico-grammatical paradigm goes further to demonstrate behaviour and context within language. For example, leading sociolinguist theorist Holmes highlights how sociolinguist theory focuses on the social functions of language. To this end, Holmes sociolinguist model suggests that how people utilise language in different social contexts is inherently related to the social relationships in community and cultural social identity (Holmes, 2008:1). In further supporting this proposition, Text 3 highlights the importance of language in providing clues to individual development and social experiences. Text 3 further highlights the importance of social context in influencing language usage. For example, while the text clearly points to a degree of familiarity and affinity between the teacher and class, the communication of the response from students in the classroom discussion again highlights the function of grammar in demonstrating behaviour and social context. The banter amongst the students in the text hints at the usual horseplay between classmates when the teacher refers to the students teasing about the pronunciation of the word “levers”, when the teacher comments “yeah, leave her alone (said as a joke and the class laughs)”. This reference to banter is nevertheless restricted by the intrinsic formality of the teacher/student relationship, which is clearly demonstrated by the usage of the language; which may arguably contrast with any text detailing the language used between the students as amongst themselves. This highlights the importance of context in choice of grammar. Additionally, the socio-linguistic approach to functional grammar is further supported by Eggins’ emphasis on the “systemic functional approach of language” in highlighting the impact of context on how text usage impacts individuals in different ways (Eggins 2004,1). This in turn correlates to the Hallidayan framework for grammar, which categorised functions of language as being ideational, interpersonal and textual (Halliday 2005). For example, Halliday refers to each of the categories being interlinked with “modes of meaning”, that become identifiable by the social context (Halliday 2005, 27). In considering the categories further, Halliday’s ideational category refers to the natural world and events, which are inherently shaped by consciousness and specifically refers to the ideational perspective as the “content function of language” (Halliday, 2005). If we apply this to Text 1, the ideational perspective is conveyed through the use of questions, which while driving reader participation simultaneously demonstrates the “consciousness” of the text with regard to providing instruction on the creation and causality of sound patterns. Similarly, in Text 2, the consciousness of the mother is highlighted through the intonation of conversing with her child whilst conveying her own perception and knowledge of death in answering the child’s question; which in turn represents the ideational perspective. Additionally, in Text 3, the teacher’s use of language and approach to engaging the students again reinforces the Hallidayan ideational perspective in language function and usage. The second category extrapolated by Halliday is the “interpersonal function”, which addresses the social context and suggests that the relationships and attitudes comprise the “participatory function of language” (Halliday 2005, 28). Directly correlated to this is the textual function in terms of typographical organisation, which fuels a language to be “operational in a context of situation” (2005). This is further evidenced by the difference in the purpose of the texts submitted. For example, Text 1 is instructional, Text 2 is informal and age appropriate and Text 3 clearly demonstrates the differences in reference and language usage according to social text through the involvement of interaction between teacher and class and class mates respectively. This in turn highlights a central argument in contemporary functional grammar theory that that “our speech provides clues to others about who we are, where we come from, and perhaps what kind of social experiences we have had (Holmes, 2008:1). Additionally, the functional grammar paradigm goes further in considering the lexicon-grammatical essence of language in considering “what is the function of grammar…. Why does language have this intermediate level of grammatical coding?”(Eggins, 2004, 113). This question at the heart of functional grammar is imperative to the evaluation of text particularly as under the “traffic light” lexico-grammar approach, there are “infinite meanings in language” (Eggins, 2004, 116). However, as Eggins highlights, whilst language may develop and change to a degree, ultimately the essence of language stays the same enabling the re-use of sound patterns (Eggins, 2004, 116). This is arguably supported by Blevins’ evolutionary phonology theory, which seeks to explain the similarities in language patterns “far apart as Australian Aboriginal, Austronesian and Indo-European”; Blevins also seek to evaluate the anomalies between the languages. In addressing the changes in the sound patterns of these languages, Blevins argues that: “in both cases, a formal model of sound change incorporating misperception and variable articulation can account for attested sound systems without reference to markedness or naturalness within the synchronic grammar” (Blevins 2007, i). In comparing her model to pure phonology, Blevins’ approach goes beyond assumptions of classic phonological theory by looking at the interrelationship between causality and recurrence of sound patterns. It is submitted that this is clearly a distinguishing factor of the evolutionary phonology model. For example, Blevins refers to the fact that in conventional phonology, the explanation for similarities in sound patterns is often attributed to the concept of parallel evolution (Blevins, 2007, 19). This in turn correlates to the lexico-grammatical basis underlying the function of grammar as extrapolated by Eggins in the suggestion that “what makes language different is that it has an intermediate level of lexico-grammar, what we make more informally refer to simply as the grammatical level” (Eggins, 2004 116). Additionally, at the crux of the functional approach in understanding the purpose of grammar is the interrelationship between the socio-cultural context and order of words to create differing grammatical structures. For example, in Text 1 as a text from an educational instruction book, the text utilises the technique of listing questions to engage the target audience and think about the instructions they are following. Additionally, in terms of the functional grammar approach regarding the order of words, the last two sentences of Text 1 arguably state the same point. However, the order of the words is different and from a lexicon-grammatical perspective, the sentence “the sound travels through the air in a similar way” is a statement about sound’s habitual behaviour in terms of travel patterns. The statement “Sound waves move through the air in a similar way” is more specific in referring to the actual concept of sound waves. Additionally, in Text 1, the language is more formal in being an extract from an educational book. Through the use of repeated questions and instructions in simple English, the text remains user friendly whilst retaining the educational purpose. In contrast, in Texts 2 and 3 whilst addressing questions remain quite informal due to the social context. For example, in Text 2, the parent/child conversation remains tailored to the age of the child asking the question and informal due to the pre-existing relationship. Similarly in Text 3, we see the teacher’s use of language being contextually appropriate to the audience in order to convey the message and relate to the students such as “Right. Let’s have a summary of what was the film basically about. They seem to mention two basic machines. Um Andrew?” which further contrasts with the colloquial language of the class members. As such, these texts exemplify the arguments of Mackenzie et al pertaining to what they term the “Discourse Event” in functional grammar and that important aspects of discourse include: “the identity of the interlocutors and their relationship to each other, (ii) the time, place and setting of the discourse, and (iii) the prevailing social conventions which govern the acceptable use of language” (Macknezie et al 90). This is clearly evident in the three texts where the discourse event in Text 1 is the education of young children, which in turn dictates the use of language, which applies equally to Texts 2 and 3. If we further evaluate the “discourse intent” argument, in Text 2, the parent’s intonation and choice of words underlines her relationship with the child in relation to a delicate subject matter. This discourse event argument is further evidenced by the inherent nuances of language, which provide various modes of expressing the same point, for example “addressing and greeting others, describing things, paying compliments” (Holmes, 2008:2). This is in turn can represent cultural background as for example, Holmes refers to the example of “sut wyt ti (how are you)” as evidence of a Welsh Greeting (Holmes, 2008:3). To this end, not only does the use and choice of language in speech address social context and provide indications of the relationship between the individuals engaged in conversation, it further provides an important key in highlighting the socio-cultural identity. Moreover, the elucidation of social context is evidenced by the manner in which a point is expressed in speech as highlighted in the sample texts. Therefore, not only does language clearly highlight social background in terms of relationship and feelings; the word usage in speech is imperative to understanding social influences (Holmes, 2008:4). For example, in Text 3 when the teacher joins in the student banter to highlight affinity with the students whilst maintaining an authoritarian control: “Yeah, leave her alone”. Moreover, Holmes argues that “linguistic variation occurs at other levels of linguistic analysis too: sounds, word-structure (or morphology), and grammar (or syntax) as well as vocabulary. Within each of these linguistic levels there is variation which offers the speaker a choice of ways of expression” (Holmes, 2008: 4). This proposition is further supported by consideration of syntax, pronunciation and choice of words. For example in Text 1, as opposed to following a conventional educational format in providing instruction; the text seeks to engage the intended audience via participation with the repeated use of questions. This is forcing the reader to register and think about what the text is attempting to teach. For example, “You can make musical sounds with rubber bands of different sizes if you pluck the strings of a guitar…. Touch the triangle while it is ringing. What can you feel?” Moreover, the influence of social background on language is further highlighted by reference to other cultures and languages. For example, Holmes makes the point that socio-cultural norms in a language will inform word usage and syntax. This argument is further supported if we consider by analogy academic arguments pertaining to appropriate adoption of translation theory. For example, Indeed, Hatim and Munday assert that “the potential field and issues covered by translation are vast and complex” as a result of the variances within the same language (Hatim & Munday, 2004: 4). Furthermore, the potential problems facing translators are compounded by the fact that there can be variances within the same language and Hatim & Munday refer to the example of J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter children’s books, which have been translated into “over 40 languages and have sold millions of copies worldwide. It is interesting that a separate edition is published in the USA with some alterations. The first book in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, appeared as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s stone in the USA….. as well as the title there were other lexical changes… The American edition makes a few alterations of grammar and syntax” (Hatim & Munday, 2004: 5). This again reinforces the tri-partite categorisation of the Hallidayan approach for example if we consider this contextually from the perspective of functional grammar, Holmes refers to the linguistic varieties used in within languages and regional areas and that interaction is dependent on social dialectic norms (Holmes, 2008:7). To this end, Holmes asserts that “these examples illustrate the range of linguistic variation which can be observed in different speech communities” (Holmes, 2008:7). Moreover, these “speech communities” are further divided into various social “codes” applicable to certain social contexts and as a result, “the members of each community have their distinctive linguistic repertoires” (Holmes, 2008:7). This will further be reflected in the structure of the language itself. For example, many Asian languages have specific “subordination” terms in referring to relatives to demonstrate respect. To this end, Lakoff and Ide comment that when compared with English, Thai and Japanese share a number of characteristics with other East Asian Languages…… Thai is said to lack inflectional endings for number, person, and tense in the verb stems, but has extensive derivative compounding, the use of numerical classifiers, sentence final particles…. And in addition sociolinguistic factors are explicitly marked” (Lakoff & Ide, 2008:50). They further posit that person reference terms in East Asian languages are far more complex than European languages with the “multi self-reference and addressee-reference terms are marked for the sex of the speaker – and the relationship of the speaker and the hearer” (Lakoff & Ide, 2008:50). Therefore the intrinsic variances in language structure and referencing informs language usage and further support the sociolinguist argument that social context and background is represented by choice of words in speech. Moreover, from a sociolinguistic perspective, Holmes postulates that “on the whole people acquire their knowledge of varieties and how to use them appropriately in the same way that they acquire their knowledge of most other aspects of language - by extensive exposure and a process of osmosis” (Holmes, 2008:8). Appurtenant to this is the social context, which not only serves to explain the variety of word choice used; it can serve to represent socio-cultural phenomenon particularly with regard to youth perspectives. This has become more apparent in the digital age, as the creation of multi-faceted digital space has seen a significant uptake by youth on a global scale, thereby perpetuating a domino effect on culture, sub-cultures and social behaviour through changing communication trends with social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace and Bebo on the other (Cross, 2004: 3). Moreover, this directly correlates to fact that 70-90% of teenagers have access to the Internet at home, which clearly impacts social interaction. . For example, the diversity of social spaces through networks such as Facebook, internet chat rooms and MySpace not only changes the way in which teenagers interact, it provides a backdrop for a multitude of complex interrelated factors, which are difficult to monitor (Barabasi, 2003: 10). Furthermore, the prolific transformation of the Internet into a commercial model and consumer orientated medium has further created gaps in the youth culture and the contemporary construction of youth culture and how young people utilise online information streams and web based services. However, the literature review reveals that the central focus when considering the impact of the internet in particular on youth has focused on threats such as cyber bullying, crime and paedophilia, with little attention being given to online game playing, entertainment and social networking. It is submitted that these trends shape youth culture and language usage, which further supports Holmes’ arguments regarding the influence of social context and social background on language usage (Firth, 2007: 15). Moreover, research from as early as 1998 indicates that this aspect of the Internet is central role in the constructions of contemporary youth culture (Bennett & Harris, 2004:47). Bennett and Harris further posit that the role and impact of technology in youth culture has created polarised theories such as postmodernism on the one hand to the cultural studies approach on the other (Bennett & Harris, 2004: 78). The post modern rationale opines that youth is shaped by cultural norms and is interrelated to Graddol’s three models of translation regarding the fragmentation of language (Graddol & Barrett). This in turn shapes the concept of “age identity”, and in context of the Internet model, Wallace et al propound that “the age status becoming de-standardised and eroded” (Wallace et al, 1998: 41). Moreover, Wallace et al argue that “young people have taken advantage of new communications technologies as they have become available to create and communicate their sub cultures (Wallace et al, 1998: 42). Indeed, Tapcott posited in 1998 that the current young generation s “the first to grow up surrounded by digital media” the ramifications of which are starting to filter through into contemporary societal culture (Tapcott, 1998; Bennett & Harris 2004: 118). If we consider by contextually the internet usage in America; a leading study undertaken by the Pew Internet &American Life Project in 2008 (“the Report”) highlighted that more than half of all online American youths between 12-17 use an online social networking site (www.pewinternet.org). The survey also found that the older teen girls in particular like to use these sites to reinforce existing relationships and flirt with boys. The Report highlights the explosive growth of these sites as a contemporary social phenomenon, which in turn has generated parental concern about risks regarding the public availability of information (www.pewinternet.org). It is evident from the report that MySpace dominated the social networking world and whilst Facebook is increasingly popular across the ages, MySpace remains culturally important as a means for independent social networking (www.pewinternet.org). Additionally, it is submitted more than merely offering vast information and entertainment to audiences, the new media format provides youths a self identity, a sense of individuality and a way to think differently from the others (Cross, 2004: 20). With the new media today, youths thinking and attitudes towards life may be manoeuvred in one way or another given these factors, it can be seen that the new media are relatively important in the lives of young people (Livingstone, 2002: 107). With this new media age, the sociability factor is clearly changing dynamics through patterns of behaviour, modes of accessing information and entertainment as well as ways of seeing the world and interacting with one another have changed (Abbot, 1998). Indeed, Anderson and Miles expressly refer to the fact that through new media, the impact on youth is “selling young people an element of identity” (Anderson and Miles, 1999: 108). Moreover, many of the social networking sites see the creation of new language colloquialisms and effectively novel “social dialects” (Holmes, 2008:123). This in turn supports Holmes’ assertion that “people often use a language to signal their membership of particular groups. Social status, gender, age, ethnicity, and the kinds of social networks people belong to turn out to be important dimensions of identity in many communities”(Holmes, 2008: 123). For example in Text 3, whilst the teacher retains control there are subtle indications of the attempts to speak on the same level as the students to ensure parity and maximise the efficacy of the lesson; which again relates to the functional grammatical emphasis on the “discourse function”. This reiterates the sociolinguistic argument that language usage will provide significant information about characteristics of the speaker, such as accent and socio-economic background, as evidenced by the three texts, which are clearly shaped by objective and purpose of the text (Holmes, 2008:123). Moreover, the reference in the Holmes to accent whilst in general terms referred to Scotland, didn’t address the fact that the same language will have regional differences in execution and therefore “speech provides social information too…..we signal our group affiliations by the speech forms we use” (Holmes, 2008:123). 4. Conclusion The above analysis clearly supports the Hallidayan categorisation of language usage regarding the interrelationship between social context and language. However, from a theoretical perspective, Graddol highlights the point that “it is always been something of an embarrassment to language scholars that the definition of their object of study is itself a major part of intellectual dispute” (1994:1). This assertion is made on grounds that whilst it is acknowledged that language is complex and an “important part of our individual identity and private experience, yet it also seems to exist “out there” as a public entity” (Graddol, 1994:1). As such, whilst acknowledging the argument regarding the use of language and social identity, Graddol’s arguments go further in attempting to propound three models for comprehending the nature of language, which correlate to the Hallidayan contextual approach (Graddol, 1994:1). The first approach focuses on the substantive nature of the language. The second model refers to the understanding of language in social context and the third model is the post modern approach, which seeks to “understand the fragmentary flux of language not by idealising simple underlying mechanisms but by attempting to tease apart and understand the nature of the fragmentation” (Graddol, 1994:1). To this end the third model goes further than the social context theory by conceptualising language and how it “conceives society and individual identity” (Graddol, 1994:1). This arguably correlates to Holmes’ propositions regarding social context and language, as in considering the nuances of language construction, social dialects, cultural differences and novel social modes, Holmes’ sociolinguistic model would appear to fall in line with Graddol’s third model, which acknowledges that “language …. Is always diverse and unstable in structure, it is not clear where the boundaries of language and other forms of communication lie” (1994:2). Moreover, in developing the third model, Graddol highlights the point that post modernism demonstrates the constant evolution of complex cultural phenomena that shape social constructs as highlighted by social networking, which creates novel forms of linguistic interaction. As such, Graddol argues that “human identity in post modern theory is also seen as diverse, inconsistent and unstable” (Graddol, 1994:2). Therefore, it is submitted that the post modern influences in culture as exemplified by the social networking phenomenon support the continued relevance of the third sociolinguist language model proposed by Graddol and Halliday. This proposition is further reinforced by the three sample texts and underlines the inherent complexity of language and that Holmes’ extrapolation of the fragmentation of language usage in terms of context, dialect, culture and relationships highlights the importance of the interrelationship between social context and language. Bibliography Abbott, C. 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