English for Specific Purposes - Dudley Evans and St John - Essay Example

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSE Background Information and ment of Purpose New Ways in English for Specific Purposes is the second volume that Peter Master and Donna Brinton have edited in TESOL's New Ways series, the other being New Ways in Content-Based Instruction (Brinton & Master, 1997). After the birth of English for specific purposes (ESP) in the 1960s, this discipline has become quite well known, especially because English has acquired the status of an international lingua franca in almost any field of study, and linguists have moved toward a contextualized notion of language. If on the one hand the success of the English language has turned it into a vehicle for international communication, on the other hand the orientation of linguistic studies toward language as communication in social contexts has largely contributed to enhance the dignity of ESP studies. The first studies on special languages were in fact those on register, which developed in a Firthian environment. Following strictly in Halliday's footsteps (Halliday, 1978), British linguists identified special registers on the basis of lexical aspects, which they considered sufficient in themselves to distinguish them from common language. For example, the presence of a lexical item such as tablespoonful was enough to presume that the register was that of recipes or prescriptions (Halliday, McIntosh & Strevens, 1964; Strevens, 1977). However, as recent approaches to special languages have pointed out, differences do not apply to the lexical level only, but also concern morph syntactic choices and textual and pragmatic organization (Swales, 1990; Gotti, 1991; Bhatia, 1993). The social context (and therefore the aim) of each of the subdivisions of ESP exerts a strong influence on the linguistic strategies which are to be adopted. Therefore situational and functional requirements direct linguistic choices such as lexical density, the complexity and the length of clause structure, the degree of formality and the management of information, to name but a few. The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning English. ESP students are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and are learning the language in order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform English and are learning the language in order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular job-related functions. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which English is required. ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners. However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, as a general rule, while in ESL all four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed by the students, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. An ESP program, might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of the students' knowledge of the subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster. The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students approach the study of English through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts. ESP assesses needs and integrates motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of relevant skills Dudley Evans and St John Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, as cited in Gatehouse, 2001), offered definition of the variable characteristics of ESP: " ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; " ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English; " ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level; "ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner: Teacher Course designer and materials provider Collaborator Researcher Evaluator The first role as 'teacher' is synonymous with that of the 'General English' teacher. It is in the performing of the other four roles that differences between the two emerge. In order to meet the specific needs of the learners and adopt the methodology and activities of the target discipline, the ESP Practitioner must first work closely with field specialists. One example of the important results that can emerge from such collaboration is reported by Orr (1995). This collaboration, however, does not have to end at the development stage and can extend as far as teach teaching, a possibility discussed by Johns et al. (1988). When team teaching is not a possibility, the ESP Practitioner must collaborate more closely with the learners, who will generally be more familiar with the specialized content of materials than the teacher him or herself. Both 'General English' teachers and ESP practitioners are often required to design courses and provide materials. One of the main controversies in the field of ESP is how specific those materials should be. Hutchinson et al. (1987:165) support materials that cover a wide range of fields, arguing that the grammatical structures, functions, discourse structures, skills, and strategies of different disciplines are identical. More recent research, however, has shown this not to be the case. Hansen (1988), for example, describes clear differences between anthropology and sociology texts, and Anthony (1998) shows unique features of writing in the field of engineering. Unfortunately, with the exception of textbooks designed for major fields such as computer science and business studies, most tend to use topics from multiple disciplines, making much of the material redundant and perhaps even confusing the learner as to what is appropriate in the target field. Many ESP practitioners are therefore left with no alternative than to develop original materials. It is here that the ESP practitioner's role as 'researcher' is especially important, with results leading directly to appropriate materials for the classroom. The final role as 'evaluator' is perhaps the role that ESP practitioners have neglected most to date. As Johns et al. (1991) describe, there have been few empirical studies that test the effectiveness of ESP courses. For example, the only evaluation of the non compulsory course reported by Hall et al (1986:158) is that despite carrying no credits, "students continue to attend despite rival pressures of a heavy program of credit courses". On the other hand, recent work such as that of Jenkins (1993) suggests an increasing interest in this area of research. Since the late 1980s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has established itself not only as an important and distinctive branch of English Language Teaching (ELT), but has also incorporated most of the work on discourse and genre analysis, as well as the results of corpus linguistics. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) claim that the teaching of ESP has generally been seen as a separate activity within ELT, partly because it has developed its own methodology, and partly because it rests on disciplines other than applied linguistics, particularly second language teaching. This openness to the insights of other disciplines, however, should not lead us to forget that ESP is an essential component of ELT, retaining its emphasis on practical outcomes stemming from needs analysis, genre analysis and preparing learners to communicate effectively. These are characteristic features of ESP, which in the course of time have come to have so strong a bearing on ELT as a whole that they have been leading the way in English Second Language teaching for a long while now, although it was ESP that was originally endowed with them. Until the very advent of ESP, learning English was to a large extent a matter of cultural prestige and educational requirement, but it very much lacked the sense of purpose which is usually attributed to ESP. Key issues in ESP curriculum design are suggested: a) abilities required for successful communication in occupational settings; b) content language acquisition versus general language acquisition; c) heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group; and d) materials development. The Origins of ESP Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably, there are three reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note those two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale for various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of international language] fell to English" (p. 6). The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers. The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers. The final reason cited as having influenced the emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be motivated by different needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered. Key Notions about ESP In this discussion, four key notions will be discussed. They are as follows: a) the distinctions between the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types of ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and d) the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP. Absolute and Variable Characteristics of ESP Theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens' original definition of ESP to form their own. Let us begin with Strevens. He defined ESP by identifying its absolute and variable characteristics. Strevens' (1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable characteristics: I. Absolute characteristics: ESP consists of English language teaching which is: Designed to meet specified needs of the learner; Related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities; Centered on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse; In contrast with General English. II. Variable characteristics: ESP may be, but is not necessarily: Restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only); Not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology. At a 1997 Japan Conference on ESP, Dudley-Evans offered a modified definition. The revised definition he and St. John postulate is as follows: I. Absolute Characteristics ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves; ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. II. Variable Characteristics ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students; Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners. Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that 'ESP is in contrast with General English' and added more variable characteristics. They assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young adults in a secondary school setting. The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in contrast with 'General English'" (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has revised and increased the number of variable characteristics. The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an 'attitude of mind'. Such a view echoes that of Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning". Types of ESP There are three types of ESP according to Dudley Evans and St John: English as a restricted language English for Academic and Occupational Purposes English with specific topics. The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language and language with this statement: The language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situational, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5). The second type of ESP is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'. The third and final type of ESP is English with specific topics. It is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. Characteristics of ESP Courses The characteristics of ESP courses identified are discussed here. He states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction. Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Closer examination of ESP materials will follow; suffice it to say at this juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form, are indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self-directed study and research tasks. For Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, a large component of the student evaluation was based on an independent study assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different resources, including the Internet. Purpose-related orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting. Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the "... point of including self-direction ... is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users". In order for self-direction to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carter (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. Is it necessary, though, to teach high-ability learners such as those enrolled in the health science program about learning strategies I argue that it is not. Rather, what is essential for these learners is learning how to access information in a new culture. English for Special Purpose in English Language Teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is known as a learner-centered approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It meets the needs of (mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in their specific fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. This course is recommended for graduate students and foreign and second language professionals who wish to learn how to design ESP courses and programs in an area of specialization such as English for business, for Civil Engineering, for Academic Purposes, and for health service purposes. In addition, they are introduced to ESP instructional strategies, materials adaptation and development, and evaluation. Its objectives include: To develop an understanding about the factors that led to the emergence of ESP and the forces, both theoretical and applied, that have shaped its subsequent development. To assist students develop needs assessments and genre analyses for specific groups of learners. To provide guidelines to adapt or create authentic ESP materials in a chosen professional or occupational area and to critically evaluate currently available materials, including technology-based ones. To become knowledgeable about assessment procedures appropriate for ESP and apply this knowledge in developing course and lesson evaluation plans in their professional or occupational area. To assist students in preparing a syllabus, lesson and assessment plan based upon their needs assessments and genre analyses. English for Specific Purposes Recent world events have underscored the need to increase understanding and to improve communication among all citizens. An international exchange of ideas is essential in areas ranging from the environment-global warming and the thinning ozone layer-to medical research-genetic engineering and equitable distribution of modern drug therapies-to the political challenges of a global economy. To meet these communication needs, more and more individuals have highly specific academic and professional reasons for seeking to improve their language skills: for these students, usually adults, courses that fall under the heading English for Special Purposes (ESP) hold particular appeal. ESP programs focus on developing communicative competence in a specific field, such as aviation, business or technology. Some courses prepare students for various academic programs: English for Science and Technology, and Pre-MBA English. Yale University offers a seminar for Graduate Teaching Assistants that emphasizes training in public speaking skills and uses videos to improve teaching and lecturing styles. Others prepare students for work in fields such as law, medicine, engineering, tourism or graphic design. Many courses now focus on the Internet, how to use its vast web of information for academic or professional purposes, and what ethics and conventions govern use of that information. How is ESP different from general English language courses 1. The words and sentences learned, the subject matter discussed, all relate to a particular field or discipline, for example, a lawyer writing a brief, or a diplomat preparing a policy paper. The courses make use of vocabulary and tasks related to the field such as negotiation skills and effective techniques for oral presentations. 2. ESP programs use printed and audio-visual materials that are specially designed to meet the needs of a specific group of learners, usually adults. Typical ESP textbooks are English for Corporate Communications and English for Information Systems. 3. Tuition for an ESP course may be somewhat higher than that of a general English language course. (The specialized teaching, requiring professionals, the broad range of supporting activities and facilities explain this higher cost.) In general, the course will conform to the length of a school's regular English language programs (semester length, 4-, 6-, or 8-week summer sessions) although a highly specialized course lasting only two or three weeks might be designed to meet the needs of a specific group. Apart from differences in ESP programs' duration and cost, these courses have a common purpose: to increase students' skill and confidence in using English. Who should enroll in ESP programs Generally, older, more advanced students should consider ESP instead of a more general English language course. Most courses assume a strong English language background. Many require that applicants be at a High Intermediate or Advanced level of skill. Learning by Example Harvard University makes use of the case studies approach which it pioneered. Students read about actual situations in the business world and discuss them in class. At Yale, leaders of the Business Seminar make frequent use of computers and offer field trips to small businesses and the New York Stock Exchange. Program lengths vary: at the University of Pennsylvania, special two-week courses for managers provide extensive practice in negotiation strategies using business simulations. Certificate programs are popular and practical courses of study for many students. Business for International Professionals is an intensive 10-week certificate program at the downtown Seattle campus of the University of Washington, focusing on global business and improving business English. Special attention is devoted to improving written business communication skills in letters, faxes, reports and e-mails, and business technologies, especially the Web. A student may participate in an internship with an American company in the academic quarter following completion of the certificate. Custom-designed Programs Often universities, usually through an Intensive English Language Institute, will arrange short- or long-term ESP programs for groups. Universities such as Sand Diego State University in California underscore that tailor-made programs can be arranged. If a university does not offer the specific instruction you seek, inquire about the possibility of developing such a program. As air travel and the Internet continue to bring us closer together, erasing the distance of time and space, communication through a common language becomes a pressing need. These English for Specific Purposes courses present unique ways to fill that need. The Future of ESP If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position it has in EFL teaching today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans' definition given in this article but I suspect a more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic Bibliography English for Specific Purpose retrieved on Friday November 10. From http://www.aelfe.org/documents/text2-Dudley.pdf REVIEW OF EXPLORING ACADEMIC ENGLISH written by Jennifer Thurstun and Christopher Candlin. Retrieved on November 10. From http://llt.msu.edu/vol5num3/review3/default.html English for Specific Purpose. Retrieved on Friday November 10. From http://translate.google.com/translatehl=en&sl=ja&u=http://www.iot.ac.jp/manu/atsuko/ESPmore.htm&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=1&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DEnglish%2Bfor%2BSpecific%2BPurpose%2Bby%2BDudley%2BEvans%2Band%2BSt%2BJohn%26start%3D50%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DN English Language Learning and Teaching from Wikipedia (2006). Retrieved on Friday November 10. From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language_learning_and_teaching Read More