Southeastern Indigenous People - Essay Example

? Southeastern Indigenous People Reaction Paper: Southeastern Indigenous People Introduction Popular stories and movies regardingsoutheastern indigenous people are filled with both motional presumptions and stereotypic judgments. Most of them are based on their domination, repression and genocide by the European colonizers and subsequent governments. However, during pr contact they had a rich lifestyle filled with religious, cultural, and economic activities. The southeastern indigenous people of North America comprised the Muskogee language family, the Siouan language family, the Iroquoian together with Caddoan language family (Oswalt, 2008). The major tribes under this group included the Seminole, the Chickasaw, the Choctaw, the Creek, and the Cherokee. The groups occupied southeastern United States whereby the environment was largely composed of diverse physiographic areas and ecological zones. The region covered areas from the coastal lowland subtropical precinct of southern Florida, towards the scrub forest to the north, and then to the savanna grassland comprising the coastal plains and the alluvial-floodplains of Mississippi River. The boundaries of southeastern cultures are rather multifaceted to delineate since the groups shared various characteristics in addition to being intertwined with neighboring cultures (Oswalt, 2008). Thus, the aim of this paper is to discuss the Southeastern people pre contact life ways, changes during contact and way of life during colonialism. Body Language In terms of language, the pre contact southeastern indigenous people had grouped themselves into four main language groups. These were the Muskogee, the Siouan, the Iroquoian and the Caddoan language family (Barnett, 2012). However, the Muskogean-speaking family comprised the biggest linguistic grouping among the Southeast indigenous people, followed by Choctaw, the Apalachee, the Creek, and the Seminole (Fogelson, 2004). Across the lower Mississippi-valley there was the Natchez, and the Chitimacha. Those who belonged to the Siouan language family included the Tutelos group, Biloxis group and the Catawbas groups. The Cherokees were the only Iroquoian speaking group of southeast indigenous Indians, with the exception of the Nottaways and the Meherrins who lived in the northerly precincts of southeastern regions (Campbell, 2000). Moreover, the Caddoan speakers who lived on the western frontier of southeastern regions belonged to a unique language family which had a remote linkage to Siouan family group and the Iroquoian family group. Interestingly, Mobilian was the predominant language of trade especially among the numerous Choctaw groups and the southeastern groups of Mississippi valley (Sturtevant, 2004). Economic Activities The landscape comprised various rolling hills with key river systems which are predominantly under forests, notably the oak trees variety and the hickory. The other portion comprised the Appalachian Mountains which includes contemporary days eastern Tennessee, northwards towards Georgia, as well as the western Carolinas (Hudson, 2002). These regions have elevated peaks with intensely etched valleys and hardwood forests vegetations which are characteristic of more-northerly areas. The region was densely populated during pre contact period and majority of the groups dwelled within the piedmont. Given that the zone was full of forests, numerous mountains and an extensive river valley system, the land was fertile enough for farmland. Hence, the native groups were accomplished farmers who planted all year round inside the valleys (Oswalt, 2008). However, the Cherokee group concentrated more on hunting since the forests had a wide variety of animals, in particular the deer, raccoons, black bears, otters, squirrels, and rabbits. Those in Florida hunted quails, turtles, wild turkeys, partridges, together with alligators, and seasonal pigeons and geese. They hunted using a variety of locally made implements like bows, arrows, and spears. They used both salt waters and fresh waters systems to acquire a massive pool of fish such as mussels and crayfish. The fishing equipments comprised weirs or underwater corrals, dip nets as well as dragnets and this was used together with hooks and long lines. In some regions, botanical-poisons were applied in ponds in order to harvest massive numbers of fish. Furthermore, the coastal southeastern groups collected oysters, sea clams, mussels, and the crabs (Oswalt, 2008). Even though Cherokee territory was mainly within the Appalachian Mountains, they fought continuously with the Creeks for hunting areas. They combined the hunting for game resources with harvesting of wild plant and farming. However, those in southern Florida took on the subtropical maritime lifestyles, especially fishing. During pre contact period, dogs were the only domesticated animals among the southeastern groups, and were extensively used for hunting and security. Corn was the key crop grown and traded with numerous varieties such as little corn, the flint, and dent (Aloian and Kalman, 2005). They normally baked the corn while some were roasted or boiled to form succotash. A typical dish comprised stewed corn with beans, while the hominy which is presently referred to as cornmeal and was made in wooden mortars constructed with bulky upright but partially hollowed logs. Beans together with squash were very significant in the diet as they were mixed with wild greens. In addition, they planted tobacco, berries in addition to sunflower in which they process oil. They also processed starchy seeds from Chenopodium, whereas the wild foods and vegetables harvested included grapes, walnut, zamia roots and plums. Southeastern people prepared the fields using mattocks or hoes, whereby holes were made by punching the ground using digging sticks before placing the seeds. They then covered the holes using earth so as to create some sort of mound nearly two feet in diameter, even as some hilled the soils into a sequence of linear mounds (Sturtevant, 2004). Characteristically, they planted the beans and squash closest to the corn so that the bean vines could utilize the corn stalks as a form of trellises, even as the extensive squash leaves offered the soil with moisture while reducing weed growth. Notably, the planting fields were more of individual household ownership rather than communal land ownership. However, various tribes planted under communal field ownership, and then the communally harvested produce was redistributed by the chiefs, especially during ceremonies or festivals (Oswalt, 2008). This constant reliable food production facilitated their hunting and trading period while providing relief during war expeditions. Furthermore, it facilitated a multifaceted civil plus religious hierarchy whereby political, religious, and hereditary organization and privileges could concur (Oswalt, 2008). Culture and Religion In terms of division of labor, the females were in charge of farmland cultivation, collection of wild foods and general home functions like cooking. The women were also notable for producing cordage, basket making, pottery, and clothing fabrication. The males on the other hand took on hunting, trading and waging of wars, and in most instances, they were away from the community (Oswalt, 2008). Furthermore, they participated in harvesting, clearing of fields for farming, especially girdling of trees and construction of houses. But when it came to ceremonies and religious festivities both genders were allowed to participate (Oswalt, 2008). The southeastern groups constructed different forms of houses, depending on availability of materials and their mobility. For instance, the Cherokee built two dissimilar forms of houses whereby during winter, round but cone-shaped shelters were built using wood enclosed with clay (Oswalt, 2008). They also used tree bark with long grass to make the conical sections, and during summer, rectangular built houses were made using extended sticks with tree-barks. Nevertheless, the Seminole group lived in smaller villages referred to as chickees, and which was a form of communal eating-house as well as storage facility (Oswalt, 2008). The chickees were basically platform shelters constructed using logs, and the foundation floor was constructed three feet off ground level so as to safeguard from flooding or animals. Moreover, the roof was made slanted so that canvas curtains could be hanged with the intention of sheltering them from cold winter, but during summer the canvas was rolled up. Other southeastern Indians temporary houses included Wattle shelters and the Daub houses (Oswalt, 2008). In terms of clothing, Deerskin, rabbit fur along with porcupine quills were used to make their attires. For instance, females wore tops made of deerskin together with rabbit fur skirts, and moccasins (Oswalt, 2008). Women made their jewelries from shells or silver even as they painted themselves with clay beads. On the other hand, males wore loin clothes made of deerskin during summer while in winter, they applied leggings, a deerskin shirt and deerskin robe. They also decorated their faces or even sometimes their entire body with tattoos and paint (Oswalt, 2008). The southeastern groups were basically Animist since their spiritual and religious beliefs were based on the assumption that every natural object has a soul or spirit. Thus, souls and spirits subsisted not just in human beings but also in the animals, the plants, rain, geographic features, and rocks. In that regard, the southeastern Green-Corn Festivals during pre contact was the most significant ceremony, as it was a formal procedure for offering sacred sacrifices to Great Spirit before planting season (Oswalt, 2008). Green-Corn was celebrated during fall whereby shamans with the dancing warriors chanted as they circled massive cooking fire, while carrying corn in their hands. Then after being cooked the corn was offered to the Great-corn spirits, as the others danced and circled in celebration. The Algonquian-speaking family group warriors asked for assistance from Great spirits through dreams and vision. In terms of burial rites, they often put up heaps of earth on the deceased bodies (Oswalt, 2008). Also, the Deer Chief was believed to be the one who placed revenge on people who defiled his people, and as such, hunting was a sacred act filled with taboos, rites, and sacrifice. Furthermore, Shamans or medicine men attributed the occurrences of diseases to failures in conciliating the souls of the killed animals. Hence, the Cherokees applied sacred stones, mystical paraphernalia and quartz crystals to infuse natural objects with consecrated power as healing or treatment option (Green and Perdue, 2005). Social Structures In terms of social arrangement, descent was based on matrilineal relationship and various groups organized themselves under kinship entities, either via matrilineal lineages or the clans (Oswalt, 2008). Clan members were then required to pay homage to clan-kin from other dispersed villages through rituals or otherwise ceremonial privileges. Clans not only acted as systems of social control but also for waging wars and organizing ceremonies and trade negotiations. Marriage involved symbolic ceremonial exchange, in which the groom offered the bride and her clan big games hunted in exchange of plant food (Hudson, 2002). After marriage, the residence was normally located in the brides natal household, whereby the groom was now required to partake in the economic sustenance of the bride family, and after some years both wife and husband may leave to come up with their own household. Divorce was also allowed and polygyny was only allowed with the consent of every extant partner (Aloian and Kalman, 2005). Furthermore, widows were allowed to marry the deceased husband brother or levirate, so as to guarantee the widow and her children provision. The Natchez had a complex rank system intertwined with marriage as well as kin customs. Notably, southeastern groups had no special rituals for age transition like other groups, and the only notable pointer of passage from teenage years to maturity being marriage and first child (Barnett, 2012). Counter Arguments The most common rationale the Europeans used against the southeastern Indians during post contact and colonial period was that they were basically migratory hunters, and that they did not have any attachment to land. Southeastern indigenous Indians colonial and post contact way of life displays memories of troubling pasts, whereby Europeans conducted genocidal strategies and policies. The struggle over the content southeastern Indians identity makes clear that in the process of remembering their past, both past and present conflicts between them need to be dealt with. Europeans were swayed by beliefs founded on stereotypes of southeastern people as being hostile, savage and wandering people. The problem is to what degree such stereotypes persevered in their thoughts. During colonialism particularly from 17th century, southeastern Indians started to concentrate on trade especially deerskins trade in exchange of firearms, slaves, jewelries and ammunition (Oswalt, 2008). Furthermore, their numbers dwindled as they were pushed out to pave way for European settlements while others died due to massive spread of European disease outbreaks like smallpox. Culturally, the spread of European Christian missions started to erode some cultural practices, especially among the Apalachee and cherokee people. For instance, baptism and Christian mass replaced Apalachee ceremonies like Bulk, and those who continued to observe such ceremonies, they replaced certain rituals with those practiced under San-Luis-Rey festivals. However, post contact resulted in abandonment of missions due to conflicts with the European powers (Hudson, 2002). They also practiced to a lesser degree their syncretism and animist religion in conjunction with Catholism and later Protestant sects. Furthermore, widows became increasingly married to their deceased husband brothers, due to heightened men mortality arising from European waged wars, slavery and conquest. For instance the Spanish conquistadors’ wars left few southeastern tribes settlements unbroken. During early 18th century, the numerous southeastern indigenous groupings merged with other bigger tribes like Creeks and the Cherokees to engage in alliances against European powers. However, they fought against each other (Hudson, 1978). Also, the conservative power structures were weakened considerably, particularly due to Spanish invasion. Hence, the existing hereditary chiefs became incapable of stopping slavery and warfare. This in the end created additional territories, bitter rivalries and elected leadership structures. Most became allied to Franciscans, so as to get military assistance and safety from slaving raids. Between late 19th century and early 20th century, the government extensively embarked on missions to extensively change the southeastern groups from ethnic marginalization to White American cultural values (Oswalt, 2008). This was through sending them to educational institutions through forced assimilation, while the elected leadership structures comprising tribal chiefs with councilors replaced customary political factions (Hudson, 2002). Furthermore, the overreliance on government social and economic support, coupled with massive unemployment, disenfranchisement and social problems like drugs, resulted in widespread poverty. The agricultural techniques also shifted clearly due to new European technologies and the introduction of new crop varieties. This then contributed to the drop in indigenous agricultural activities. However trading increased considerably as trading became more profitable and this coupled with the fact that that their land was subdivided and others displaced completely from their lands made traditional agricultural practices to diminish. In terms of religious beliefs, most southeastern groups combined their animistic perspectives with Christianity (Oswalt, 2008). Conclusion This paper has discussed the Southeastern people pre contact life ways, changes during contact and their way of life during colonialism. During pre contact, many diverse Southeast tribes existed communally and they spoke diverse sets of languages and local dialects. Majority of the tribes combined farming and hunting with fishing and gathering. Each tribe had a structured social and political government enforced with strong religious structures. The southeastern Indians had numerous aspects in common, particularly in terms of their agricultural practices, hunting, shelter, religion and natural medicines. During colonialism their numbers dwindled due to slavery, wars, disease outbreaks and massive displacement. Trade increasingly replaced agriculture and hunting, and as they became more mobile, they shifted from traditional settlements and housing to reserves and town life. They combined Christianity with some traditional religious rites while some shifted to Europeans way of life entirely. Levirate marriages increased during colonialism due to heightened male mortality that resulted when tribes. Social problems like poverty, diseases, lack of housing, unemployment, drug and alcohol use took a toll on them. However, in recent past, they have to some extent managed to revitalize their languages, dances and music with an intention of strengthening their individuality and high regard after enduring pressurized cultural erosion measures. References Aloian, M., & Kalman, B. (2005). Nations of the Southeast. Crabtree Publishing Company. Barnett, J. F. (2012). Mississippi's American Indians. Univ. Press of Mississippi. Campbell, L. (2000). American Indian Languages:The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press. Fogelson, R. D. (2004). Southeast. Handbook of North American Indians, 14, 598–615. Green, M. D., & Perdue, T. (2005). The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Southeast (The Columbia Guides to American Indian History and Culture). Columbia University Press. Hudson, C. M. (1978). The Southeastern Indians. University of Tennessee Press. Hudson, C. M. (2002). The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540-1760. Univ. Press of Mississippi. Oswalt, W. H. (2008). This Land Was Theirs: A Study of Native North Americans (9 ed.). Oxford University Press. Sturtevant, W. (2004). Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 14: Southeast. Government Printing Office. Read More