Autonomy in Language Learning and Teaching - Literature review Example

? Learner Autonomy in Language Learning and Teaching By of [Word Count] Introduction Current times have recorded considerable growth in the number of authors and scholars interested in and researching the subject of autonomy not only in learning but also in teaching languages. This literature review focuses on the major areas covered by the works published in the late 20th century and the early 21st century with regard to the learner and teacher autonomy in linguistics. Outstanding in the review is the fact that quite alternative and divergent viewpoints have emerged on the subject of autonomy in language learning and teaching. Furthermore, autonomy in language learning and teaching has been studied in alternative contexts, circumstances and practices (Camilleri, 1997). Among the contexts in which autonomy in linguistics has been covered in recent times are self-regulation, teacher/learner development, autonomy and motivation, and the socio-cultural theory of autonomy (Camilleri, 1997). In addition to the ever-expanding role of autonomy in educational policies and their reforms, many works have covered the developments that the philosophy of autonomy has undergone in recent times. Furthermore, this literature review suggests the possible direction for future autonomy-related/focused researches by students, lecturers and applied-linguistics researchers. This literature review will be quite useful to educators and language teachers concerned with learner training, self-accessibility and autonomous learning since it comprehensively accounts for autonomy in language learning and all the other educational practices related to the concept of autonomy. Autonomy in Language Learning and Teaching Although a rather common term in contemporary linguistic classes and issues, autonomy is not that clearly understood by many a stakeholder. This situation is more apparent in education activities related to the acquiring of lifelong learning skills (Benson and Voller, 1997). However, many works appreciate the role of autonomy in changing age-old practices and beliefs in linguistic classes, hence the promotion of self-accessibility and participation in language learning institutions (Benson and Voller, 1997). Because of the effects of the past and recently published books and research findings and the recommended practices therein, language learning has claimed its position in the academic field and has consequently placed learners at the centre of education. The historical origins and the background of the term ‘autonomy’ in linguistics is one of its many aspects covered in the works reviewed in this study. Most works concur that the term ‘learner autonomy’ was coined and first used by Henri Holec, regarded as the father of learner autonomy, in 1981. Though it originated from a single source, the relevant works define the term quite differently. These definitions not only depend on writers but also on their educational levels and contexts within which their books and articles are written. Among the contexts in which the definition of ‘learner autonomy’ has been defined differently are politics, education and human/social spheres (Benson and Voller, 1997). However, it is in the educational context, more so linguistics, that ‘learner autonomy’ has been covered in studies and works to a large extent. In fact, in linguistics-related literature, autonomy is portrayed both as a means and an end to learning and teaching languages. In the literature review, several definitions were common in most books. For instance, Benson and Voller (1997) define ‘learner autonomy’ as one’s capacity to take charge of his/her learning activities and processes. Other authors define ‘autonomy’ as a learner’s or a teacher’s ability to psychologically relate with the contents and processes of learning and teaching respectively (Wenden, 1998). For teachers, autonomy also implies the recognition of a learner’s rights within a learning institution or an educational system. From these definitions of autonomy, it is evident that the perception that autonomy is an end or a means to an end is a major factor in defining autonomy. As a means to an end, ‘learner autonomy’ is rather useful in learning second/foreign language; as an end in itself, autonomy makes people autonomous learners (Wenden, 1998). It should not, however, be misunderstood that one cannot harbor both perceptions of autonomy. In fact, it is recommended that people adopt both views of autonomy. Principles of Autonomy During the literature review, certain features or principles became apparent as far as language learner and teacher autonomy are concerned. First, in most of the reviewed works, autonomy is portrayed as entailing the direction of more attention to learning rather than to teaching (Wenden, 1998). Such focus on learning processes ensures that learners are maximally influenced by their teachers and learning activities. The other apparent principle of autonomy in the literature reviewed was that autonomy requires peer support, cooperation and self/peer assessment (Wilczynska, 1999). According to Wilczynska (1999), the other rather demanding principle of autonomy in language learning is the educator’s responsibility in supporting the learner and availing space for the development of autonomy is available. The importance and influence of technology in ensuring the restrictive classroom atmosphere favors autonomy has also be emphasized in many works, both electronic and printed ones. Thus, technology also has a great influence on empowering learners through autonomy. In fact, through technology, learners of languages have taken the outside world into the classroom (Wilczynska, 1999). Because of its influence in empowering learners, autonomy and its influence on education had been the subject of rather many studies. There are several features of autonomous learning in linguistics that have been associated with educational development and performance. These characteristics of autonomous learning are the initiative, resourcefulness and persistence (Cotteral, 1995). In most education systems in the world, as a learner progresses from one grade to another, the need for learner autonomy becomes direr. Studies have since recommended that such learners should be taught more advanced autonomous learning techniques for an enhanced probability to perform and succeed (Cotteral, 1995). As a matter of fact, students that are first screened for autonomous learning abilities before promotion have been shown to achieve better results compared to those simply screened on scholarly achievement. A number of works have also extensively covered the controversies and misunderstanding among some learners and educators regarding learner autonomy and self-instruction. This misunderstanding stems from the fact that learner and teacher autonomy are quite difficult to define accurately. For example, while some works argue that learner autonomy is one’s capacity characterized by responsibility, others feel that it refers to one’s behavior characterized by control (Cotteral, 1995). The other apparent confusion in the rapidly expanding autonomy literature is whether learner autonomy is psychological or political and whether the development of learner autonomy depends on teacher autonomy or not. These diverse views in literature notwithstanding, many writers concur that autonomous learners are well aware of and accept their responsibilities in the learning process and set their learning objectives right (Thanasoulas, 2000). Further, autonomous learners not only initiate but also implement their learning activities, monitor and evaluate the efficiency and relevance of their learning activities and outcomes (Thanasoulas, 2000). Among the requirements for learner autonomy cited in most of the reviewed works are self-management, positivity, insight and interaction with others. On the basis of these requirements, it is evident that autonomous learning in linguistics has several challenges including the need to engage with a language’s social, cognitive, meta-cognitive and affective dimensions. The Importance of Autonomy in Linguistics Learner and teacher autonomy in language learning would not be covered in so many works if it were not an important educational concept. Generally, two major reasons have been established as the driving forces behind the rise of autonomy to prominence in language learning. The first significance of autonomy is that if language teachers and learners reflectively engage one another, the learning process becomes rather well-organized, effectual and successful (Lee, 1998). That is, self-directed learning is not only more focused but also more personal than dependent learning is. Furthermore, autonomous learning serves learners’ wide agendas in the educational contexts as compared to non-autonomous learning. Autonomous learning also helps eliminate motivation problems since learners are always committed to their learning activities and are concerned about the outcomes of their learning. Despite the fact that such learners may not be wholly positive about all the aspects of their learning, autonomous learners develop certain attitudinal and reflective resources that help them address and solve attitudinal and motivational problems (Hajduk, 2012). The importance of learner autonomy is, however, more obvious in the second or foreign language learning and acquisition, in which the continued use of certain procedural skills is the only technique of becoming an effective communicator. What is more, in situations where a learner depends entirely on language use for learning and acquisition, it becomes imperative that social autonomy be encouraged in the educational and social environment. How to Make Autonomous Learners It would be an exercise in futility if the learner and teacher autonomy in linguistics were covered by quite many works without a mention of how language learners are made autonomous. In fact, theories, more so the psychological ones, have been developed to help teachers make language learners autonomous (Czarnik, 2006). In most of these psychological theories, learning is considered a supported performance that depends on the interconnection of one’s social interactive nature and cognitive learning processes. Many works thus emphasize the teachers’ roles in ensuring the prevailing learning environment that promotes learners’ propensity to autonomy. In fact, in the second language learning, which is quite different from learning mathematics or any other subject, required is the development of entirely different skills outside the normal learning content and contexts (Czarnik, 2006). Critical in an automisation process for language learners is the use of the target language as the preferred communication medium in teaching. Furthermore, the target language should be taught and learnt from the beginning followed by the gradual learning and development through learning activities. Additionally, constant evaluation of the learning process by teachers, peers, and self-assessment are also crucial ingredients in the molding of an autonomous language learner (Czarnik, 2006). To help language learners capture and muster the contents of their learning, writers advise that teachers include learning materials such as posters and learners’ logbooks. These materials are important in two major ways in addition to their role in helping learners understand the content of learning. First, they support learners’ speech abilities in the learned language. Second, these materials provide the much needed focus on assessment. Learners’ development should also be supported by the provision of self-access learning within the course or by way of advisory services (Czarnik, 2006). Also, self-access to literatures and other learning materials may be promoted through learner counseling. Teacher Autonomy and Professional Freedom In some of the reviewed works, teacher autonomy is somehow equated to professional freedom. First, the largely covered learner autonomy has been constantly linked to teacher autonomy, since teacher autonomy refers to an educator’s capability to assist students in becoming autonomous learners (Grombczewska, 2011). Teacher autonomy may thus be regarded as an equivalent in capacity to learner autonomy. That is, teacher autonomy is more concerned about control over teaching rather than control over learning. Furthermore, it has been established that for a teacher to encourage and practice autonomy, he/she must have equally grounded own autonomous learning. That autonomous teachers must also have own autonomous learning capabilities thus makes it rather difficult to make a clear distinction between learner and teacher autonomy (Scharle and Szabo, 2000). Further Research and Future Prospects Many works vouch for further research to be done on the subject of the learner and teacher autonomy in language learning. Most suggested as the focus of future researches the question whether autonomy in language learning works and how to carry out an automisation of language learners. The many works available on learner autonomy do not suggest that the subject is a majority pursuit; in fact, compared to other educational areas, learner autonomy needs more research and coverage. There is a feeling among many stakeholders that autonomy in language learning could be lagging behind since its principles contradict the long-established educational culture and structures that discourage learner autonomy. Fortunately, reports continue to come in on larger-scale on the positive trends in the learner autonomy in language learning and acquisition from all over the world (Fenner, 2000). Asia, perhaps, ranks first in language learning as Asians largely embrace international and business languages such as German, French and English. For instance, in a study focusing on teachers’ perceptions of autonomy carried out among English language teachers and learners at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, it was revealed that language teachers understand their responsibilities and roles in language learning (Fenner, 2000). For an illustration of this finding, language teachers at the university acknowledged their role in assessing and shaping their students’ decision-making processes and abilities with regard to autonomous language learning materials and activities (Fenner, 2000). Other teachers also feel that they are more obliged to contribute to their learners’ methodologies for language learning and acquisition and motivational needs. The interviewed teachers also concurred that they have a more integral role in assessing and evaluating their students’ work and progress. The other finding in the study was that language teachers are less concerned with the learning and progress of their students outside the classroom. Conclusion Teacher and learner autonomy in language teaching and learning are two closely interconnected concepts that are often conceptualized in language-related educational processes. Learner autonomy is particularly fostered in linguistics by educational processes and interventions. In many works, teacher autonomy and learner autonomy in language learning have been covered as somewhat crucial elements of the second and foreign language learning and acquisition. Though written by different authors, the works reviewed in this study were undivided in their understanding and definition of autonomy in language learning. Among the core elements or contexts within which autonomy in language learning is defined in many a scientific work are self-regulation, teachers’ professional freedom, teacher/learner development, autonomy and motivation, and the socio-cultural theory of autonomy. The works reviewed were also unanimous in their listing of the principles of autonomy in language learning. Among the principles of autonomy in language learning are attention to learning rather than to teaching, peer support, cooperation and self/peer assessment, supporting and ensuring there is room for developing autonomy. The scientific works reviewed also revealed the importance of autonomy in language learning, which included allowing teachers and learners to reflectively engage one another, making the learning process well-organized, effective and successful. Reference list Benson, P., and Voller, P., 1997. Autonomy and independence in language learning. London: Longman Limited. Camilleri, A., 1997. Awareness for autonomy: an introduction to learner autonomy. Council of Europe, Workshop No 3. Cotteral, S., 1995. Developing a course strategy for learner autonomy. ELT Journal, 49(3). Czarnik, G., 2006. How to learn learning – developing autonomy in a traditional language learning classroom. Foreign Languages at School, 4 (257). Fenner, A., 2000. Approaches to materials design in European textbooks: Implementing principles of authenticity, learner autonomy and cultural awareness. [online]. Available at http://www.worldcat.org/title/approaches-to-materials-design-in-european-textbooks-implementing-principles-of-authenticity-learner-autonomy-cultural-awareness/oclc/52110180 [Accessed 27 July 2012]. Grombczewska, M., 2011. The relationship between teacher’s feedback and students’ motivation. [online]. Available at http://www.hltmag.co.uk/jun11/stud.htm [Accessed 26 July 2012]. Hajduk, H., 2012. Learner autonomy and independence in language learning. [online] Available at http://www.profesor.pl/publikacja,3363,Artykuly,Learner-Autonomy-and-Independence-in-Language-Learning [Accessed 25 July 2012]. Lee, I., 1998. Supporting greater autonomy in language learning. ELT Journal, 52(4). Scharle, A., and Szabo, A., 2000. Learner autonomy: a guide to developing learner responsibility. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press. Thanasoulas, D., 2000. What is learner autonomy and how can it be fostered? [online]. Available at http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html [Accessed 27 July 2012]. Wenden, A., 1998. Learner strategies for learner autonomy. 1st ed. Pearson Prentice Hall. Wilczynska, W., 1999. To learn and to be taught: Autonomy and acquiring a foreign language. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Read More