Fires in Buildings - Assignment Example

Title: FIRES IN BUILDINGS Dated: February 22, 2011 Part I: The Following four incidents of fires in the buildings are selected for their illustration: a) The 1992 Windsor Castle fire, 1992, U.K. b) Fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel in Italy ,1999 c) Fire in the Windsor Tower, Spain ,2005 d) Toronto high-rise blaze,2010,Canada a) The Windsor Castle fire, 1992, U.K. On 20 November 1992, a fire incident took place in the Windsor Castle to the west of London, which is one of the official residences of the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The fire has destroyed some of the essential parts of the building along with sever damages to the building. The fire broke out because of spotlight ignition in a curtain. A light on a large grid map of the castle demonstrated the site. The alarm went off in the castle fire brigade as manned by the Chief Fire Office, the fire quickly spread to several neighboring rooms, and the major part of the State apartments was set ablaze. The Royal Berkshire Fire and Rescue Service arrived at the scene for taking part in the rescue operations within eleven minutes as the reaction time. The information was disseminated among all the stakeholders for the execution of a coordinated rescue operation with the help of ten pumping appliances, twenty engines supported by two hundred firefighters from Buckinghmshire ,London, Oxfordshire ,Berkshire and Surrey. The fire incident was executed under the command of the Fire Incident Commander with the assistance of Deputy Chief Fire and Rescue Officer of the Royal Berkshire Fire Rescue Services without the Chief Officer as the same was out of the country. The fire was finally in control within a period of eight hours and twenty seven minutes at 8:00 p.m. on the same date. Pockets of the fire remained alive until early next day. To deal with any post-fire incident, sixty firemen with the help of eight appliances remained on duty for several more days at the site of the fire. Lack of fire stopping in cavities and roof voids has suplemented in the spread of fire in the building.The rescue operations were helped by other people along with the fire fighting staff to aviod casualities and material losses. There had been no serious injuries and no deaths. Lesson learned: The rescue operations as were conducted to handle Windsor Castle fire, 1992, has contributed in the shape of a number of lessons for their utilization in the formulation of fire rescue operations in the buildings. The incident has demonstrated that quick response of the fire fighting team will help in the minimization of the losses, coordinated efforts yield positive results in the shape synergatic desired results in the shape of negligible dameges and the fire fighting rescue operations could be initiated even without the presence of head of the rescue team. Recommendations: The chances of eruption of fire in the buildings could be minimized with the adoption of international building codes, marking of stirways in case of emergencies and, installation of sprinklers in the buildings with necessary preventing chemicals. Educating the visitors of the buildings with the help of charts and maps so as to avoid losses as are associated with the emergencies like that of fire in the buildings. Conclusion: The fire incident at the Windsor Castle fire, 1992, U.K. has worked as case study for the researchers in the shape of encourging results. Lowering in the reaction time at the initial stage will contribute in the form minimum losses and coordinated efforts both by the fire fighting staff and non-technical staff will help in the control of fire with decreased number of injuries and deaths as are associated with the fires in the buildings. b) Fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel in Italy ,1999 The Mont Blanc Tunnel is a road tunnel between France and Italy in the Alps which connects Chamonix and Courmaveur which was completed in 1965. The tunnel is a single bore as a two lane tunnel as a horse shoe shaped tunnel with seven meter wide roadway supplemented with 0.8 walkways on each side. At every 300 m, there are vehicle rest areas with a dimension of 3.15 m wide by 30 m long, at alternating sides of the roadway and numbered from one (1) to thirty six ( 36) in the France-Italy direction. Opposite to each rest area of the tunnel, there is designated U-turn for trucks. On 24 March 1999 a truck fire at Kilometer 6.7 of the tunnel into the Italian part of the tunnel and spread to 35 other vehicles in side the tunnel. The incident has created intense heat and toxic fumes in side the tunnel that had killed 39 people. The total duration of the fire remained for 53 hours. The truck was carrying flour and margarine for its transportation, which caught fire in the tunnel. At the initial stages, the driver of the truck was unaware about the fire incident, whoever, after several kilometers the incident was realized by the driver as cars coming from the opposite side flashed their headlights at the driver. White smoke coming out from the cab served as a signal for the incident. The driver stopped the truck in the middle of the road inside the tunnel for attempting to fight the fire but due to flames of the fire from his truck, he was forced back in helpless mode. The tunnel employees triggered the fire alarm and stopped the entry of the traffic into the tunnel for reducing the losses as are associated with the eruption of the fire. The ventilation system drove toxic smoke back down the tunnel faster blocking the entry of the rescue staff for safety of the trapped people inside the tunnel. Lesson learned: The rescue operations need healthy environment for their executions in the fire incidents as the movement of the toxic gases has hindered the operations in the fire incident inside the tunnel in 1999. The drivers of the vehicles need proper hygenic training as gathering of the toxic fumes has blocked the engines of the vehicles; resultantly more casualities were the outcome. Recommendations: The road tunnels facilitate in reducing the distance between the two connecting points ,however , proper arrangement for oxygen could reduce the losses during the fire incidents in the tunnel. The administrators of the road tunnels need to construct fire cubicals at regular intervals for the tunnel users in case of emergencies like that of fire incidents in the tunnels.The installation of fire protection barriers and sprinklers will help in the control of fire during the emergencies inside the tunnels. Conclusion: The handling of fire incident inside the tunnels need arrangements for the removal of toxic gases ,addition of oxygen and proper communication tools and the authorities both during the construction phase and the operational phase need to focus on these basic requirements for reducing the losses in case of emergencies like that of fire incidents in the road tunnels. c) Fire in the Windsor Tower, Spain ,2005 The Windsor Tower was constructed in 1979 in the financial center of Madrid, Spain. The height of the building was one hundred and six (106) meter and had thirty two (32) floors. The tower was gutted by a huge fire on February 12, 2005, and resulted in partial collapse of the building. The tower was designed by a team of six Spanish architects in 1974 and subsequently was constructed between the period of 1975 and 1979 with distinctive appearance because of its elemental geometery.The tower,however, was lacking composite elements in its structure and designs. On February 12, 2005, a fire was detected on the 21st floor of the building. The fire spread quickly in the the entire building, leading to the collapse of the outermost, parts of the upper floors; The rescue operations with firefighters needed approximately 24 hours to extinguish the fire .Nobody was killed in the fire, While seven firefighters were injured during the recue operations. Heavy demolition cost was incurred ,roughly about $ 32.5 million. Lesson learned: One of the major causes of the fire incident in the tower was considered as the electric fault in the electrification process of the building. This leads to the fact that proper wiring system for electric appliances in the buildings help in lowering the emergencies in the buildings including the fire incidents. The observance of building codes with all necessary details including automatic sprinkler protection will help in the avoidance of hazards like that of fire incidents in the buildings. Recommendations: The fire departments in Spain need to enhance their accessability level to control the fire incidents in the buildings. The capacity building of the staff and the administratotors will promote a win-win situation for all the stakeholders. The government will benefit from the satisfactory level of service delivery in the fire fighting sector, the owners of the buildings including the government departments will recive quality services and the general masses will get the benefit in the shape of protection and safety including during the incidents of fires in the buildings. Efforts could be attempted to quantify the level of safety in the buildings. Conclusion: The construction of buildings involves utilization of a variety of materials including structural steel. The structural steel on the external side in case of Windsor tower was collapsed which leads to the conclusion that the selection of material in the construction of buildings is a key factor. The application of International Building Code will serve as guidelines for the construction of quality as well as durable buildings especially relating to the fires in the buildings. d) Toronto high-rise blaze,2010,Canada A high-rise apartment building at 200 Wellesley St. E. in downtown Toronto caught fire on September 25, 2010. The inhabitants were forced from their homes to vacate the building following a six-alarm fire that had took firefighters hours to extinguish and the rescue operation was started. During the rescue operation, at least twelve people were shifted to the hospital. Three of them were in serious condition due to the blaze. The fire started on the 24th floor of the building with total of 30-storey building at 200 Wellesley St. E. near Bleecker Street. The Toronto Fire Service officials took part in the rescue operations for the safety and security of the inmates with a target to reduce the losses. The fire has caused spot fire in other adjoining areas, which began at around 5 p.m., The fire was brought under control until late into the evening of the same day. The rescue team was arranging shelter for the tenants who had evacuated the building under fire. The rescue members were still arriving 90 minutes after the fire had begun. The fire was so alarming that at least 120 firefighters were needed to douse the flames. The building is a part of the Toronto Community Housing, the biggest social housing provider in Canada. Lesson learned: The rescue operations need coordinated and articulated efforts for their execution of rescue operations in the buildings under fire. Any deviation in the plan will result in the shape of sever damages both human and material. Mobilization of the community also needs concurrent efforts for motivating the people to take part in the rescue operations. Spread of fire in the neighboring buildings has demonstrated that the building codes have not properly been observed during the construction of the building. Recommendations: The eruption of fire in the multi-storey buildings can be lowered with the application of adequate fireproofing in the building with necessary structural integrity. The mechanism will provide a framework for enhancement of existing methods of fire-resistive design in high-rises. The adoption of the recommendation will be helpful in the promotion of safety and security of such type of buildings with decreased number of fire incidents. Conclusion: The handling of fire incident in the multi-storey building needs execution plan through the participation of a variety of stakeholders. Such type of buildings would be required to be sprinklered in phases with the entire building protected by sprinklers. The observance of International Building Code during the construction of such types of buildings will contribute in the safety and protection of the buildings in the emergencies like that of fires in the buildings. Performance based designs ,when applied to fire safety for the buildings lead to the fire safety engineering for designing of the buildings with safety and protection and reduction in losses. Part 2 For designing and construction of an intelligent building consisting of 40 storey block, with multi-occupied premises 60% hotel and 40% residential area, in the Manchester City Centre ,the following building construction methods and materials will be used: Building construction methods and materials: The construction of building starts with planning and design through the assistance of architect and designer of the building. The construction process involves selection and application of business construction method within a specific period. A combination of concrete, steel framework with timber will be applied in hybrid shape. Developers, designers, suppliers and specialists will work in a coordinated mechanism for the execution of the plan. All of these stakeholders will combine their individual knowledge and expertise as on collective basis for the construction of building with all its necessary technical details. Skills, materials and technical expertise plays key role in the construction process and a multi-storey building for hotel and residential purposes require utilization of all these items as input on the supply side of the construction process. The selection of materials in the shape of concrete for the basic structure of the building, the steel framework for accuracy and maintaining load of the building within the standards as in accordance with the Building Codes will help in the construction of the building as per required details. The selected material will promote durability and strength of the building with necessary supplements like paints and vermiculite against the hazards like fires. Design professionals like engineers and architects provide basic skeleton for the whole construction process. Application of prefabricated method for the construction of the building especially for steel structures will assist in the completion of the building within minimum period. Steel as building material is an excellent reusable material in the construction process for the multi-storey building like in combination shape as hotel and residential with 60: 40 ratios. Possible strategies of design for fire safety: The construction of buildings like forty storey building needs application of effective strategies of design for fire safety in the building. Use of Copper slag in non- structural components like partition walls in the building will help in reducing the losses in fire incidents. The addition of sand will improve the performance of the partition walls and will work as environment friendly element in the building. The combination will lead to the achievement of fire safety objective for the building. Structural framing with the help of steel construction and dry construction methods have a great deal to offer in sustainable construction and fire safety for the building. The use of steel framed construction in the building will lower the risks and is a part of the fire safety strategy for the building. The selection of the material in the shape of steel will promote efficiency, competitiveness and effectiveness of the building in the fire incidents in the building. The structural frames for multi-storey building consist of an appropriate arrangement of beams, slabs, foundations, bracings and columns to resist the combined effects of horizontal and vertical loads of the building including during the period of fire, if any. Various types of sections like H- section, I –section and hollow sections are used in the columns for the enhancement of fire resistance in the building. Beams are applied in the building and the configuration of these beams work as part of the fire strategy for the building. I-section and H- section profile of the beams are good example for the enhancement of fire resistance for the building. Floors of the building are also designed to resist the vertical load of the building. The floors in the building consist of slabs, which are supported by steel beam. All these arrangements work as part of the fire strategy in environment friendly mechanism with efficiency and economic viability. Smoke control movements in the building. The smoke control system strategies and designs for multi-storey buildings like 40 storey block, with multi-occupied premises 60% hotel and 40% residential area, in the Manchester City Centre are generally aimed at enhancing occupant safety by improving tenability during the evacuation within a compartment in the event of fire in the building. The building will be equipped with the sprinklers with sufficient smoke control design for controlling movement of smoke in the building. The system will be installed while keeping in view the four main factors, which include fire effect, wind effect, stack effect and air movement along with the ventilation systems. The smoke control system will work in combination in the shape of passive control systems and active control systems for the delivery of effective results in the building. Passive control system will include smoke barriers, smoke reservoirs and natural ventilation with restrictions for the spread of smoke within the building. Active control system will consist of pressurization of escape routes and shafts, ventilation systems, and mechanical smoke extraction. Major aim of pressurization is to develop a pressure gradient across compartments of the building so that air always flows out from the area, which needs to be protected for example exit ways. The control system for the movement of smoke will also include smoke detection devices for the detection of fire earlier than that of heat detectors in the building. The system in the building is supported with the computer simulation for the analysis of smoke movement and control as a part of the useful research for understanding the dynamics of air and smoke movement. The step will provide information about assessment hazards and optimization of smoke control systems for its application and for review of the smoke control system in the building. All these steps will contribute for the development and implementation of the system for the safety and security of the building as well as of the occupants. Sustainable energy technologies and carbon management in the building: Energy is an essential input for running the activities in the building both in the hotel as well as in the residential component of the building. The building will adopt measures for the utilization of energy both electricity as well as forms of energy as on cost effective manner and with efficient utilization of energy in the building. The overall policy of the administration will revolve around three main pillars for the application of sustainable energy technologies and carbon management within the building as: a) Preference for the use of renewable energy as primary source as compared to that of non-renewable; b) using maximum quantum of day light for running the affairs in the building, and c) application of solar panels for the generation and utilization of electricity in the building. The energy plan will be executed through a Carbon Reduction Officer with necessary supporting staff, who will become responsible for running the Carbon Management Program in the building. All the stakeholders will take part for efficient utilization of energy in the building through an effective communication system within the building according to the communication plan. The Management will aid the Carbon Reduction Officer at a strategic level for the development of operational and tactical plans in the creation of an atmosphere for efficient utilization of energy in the building. The energy utilization in the building will be reviewed on monthly and quarterly basis for the promotion of efficiency in the energy sector for the building. The overall team will be responsible for implementing projects across the listed activities relevant to their business unit activity in the hotel section of the building. Similarly, utility and fuel consumption will be monitored on quarterly basis and a revised carbon footprint will be calculated annually among all the stakeholders. The Carbon Management Board will review the policy for the energy utilization pattern on annual basis for making any alterations in the energy matrix utilization for the building with an overall direction for the promotion of green technologies in the building. Application of extinguishing agents in the building: Gaseous fire-extinguishing agents along with fire- sprinkler system will be applied in the building for protection of property and humans in case of any emergency including fire incidents in the building. These extinguishing agents will be utilized when the application of water has the potential to cause excessive collateral damages or an stoppage of critical operations in case of fire incidents. Previously ,carbon dioxide and Halon were the common types of gaseous agents ,however ,their usage have been banned in 1994 by the Montreal Protocol due to nature of Halon as stratospheric ozone-depleting substance. Subsequently, more than 12 types of agents have been considered as alternatives to Halon. Carbon-dioxide extinguishing systems are effective at extinguishing fires in majority combustible materials. When carbon dioxide (CO2) is used in total flooding applications ,however, these systems have the potential to produce lethal concentrations of the gas in the protected space. Therefore, carbon dioxide is not recommended for use as an extinguishing agent in the residential spaces like multi-storey buildings.Two common types of gaseous agents that are considered as replacement to Halon are halocarbon compounds and inert gases. These replacements will be applied as per international Fire Protection Standards along with the specific designs, installation, and maintenance requirements for effective operation of system in the building. The services of Fire-protection engineers with latest scientific knowledge and technologies will be utilized on outsourcing basis for application in case of fire incidents in the building. A fire-protection engineer can help in determining the appropriate gaseous fire-extinguishing agent for the appropriate application and assist in preparing the design of the overall system, its installation, and maintenance requirements and the services of the said engineer will be hired as a staff member and essential part of the administration. Part 3 (40%) Q1.  Find the flame height of the fire involved plastic materials of 0.35 m2 circle area with burning rate approximately 12.5 g/s at a heat of combustion of 30 kJ/g. What should be a critical diameter of the fire area that the fire reaches ceiling on height of 2.5 m? Answer: Circle area= 0.35 m2 Burning rate = approximately 12.5 g/s Heat of combustion = 30 kJ/g Ceiling height for the fire= 2.5m By putting all these values in formula for the calculation of flame height= 2.05 2. Mixed fuel is composed by methane (volume percent is 0.35), carbon monoxide (0.35) and hydrogen (0.30). Calculate the lower flammable limit concentration for the mixture and the concentration of each component in the mixture with air. Answer: Methane =volume percent is 0.35 Carbon monoxide= 0.35% Hydrogen = 0.30% Lower flammable limit concentration for the mixture=? By putting all these values in the formula, the answer is 5.38% 3. Consider a 1.5 m diameter pan fire of petrol with heat release intensity of about 375 kW/m2 of surface area. Calculate the flame height under the normal atmospheric conditions. Answer: Diameter of the pan of petrol= 1.5m Heat release intensity = 375 kW/m2 of surface area Flame height=? By putting the values in the formula, the flame height = 3.00m 4. Calculate the wavelength for infrared thermal radiation with frequency 1015 Hz and compare with the wavelength for BBC Radio 4, 92.8 MHz. Frequency=1015 Hz Its comparison with BBC radio with 4, 92.8 MHz. The wavelength of infrared thermal radiation is greater than that of BBC radio as the frequency of the earlier is higher than that of the later. 5.  A person with initial speed of 1.25 m/s is moving to fire exit as described on the Fig. 1. His travel consists of two parts (AB and BC). In the first part (AB) he is moving with constant speed of 1.25 m/s. When he has achieved the point B, he will start to move with constant deceleration of 0.01 m/s2 due to the crowd in the second part of his trip. What time is needed for the person to achieve the fire exit? Assume that AD is 5 m, BC is 7 m and α = 30o. Figure 1 Answer: By considering all the given data, the person will require 15 minutes to achieve the fire exit. 6.  A person is moving to a fire exit through a corridor (Fig. 2). His speed is 1.25 m/s and constant during his travel. In the corridor there is a strong air movement. Speed of air movement is 0.5 m/s and width of the corridor is 10 m. Find the minimum time needed to reach the fire exit. Explain your answer and indicate the right direction for his evacuation? Figure 2 Answer: The person will require 13 minutes for completion of the given journey as the air movement is 0.5 m/s and will serve as negative factor in the movement. 7. How different is the result for the previous question, if air movement changes its direction on opposite (U = - 0.5 m/s). Answer: There will be a difference of 2 minutes in case of the two previous questions as in case of question number 5 ,the required time is 15 minutes and in case of question number 6,the same is 13 minutes. 8. A compartment is fully involved in fire. The flame inside the room is dull red. Calculate thermal radiation emission [W/m2] from the compartment considering the gray body model with ε = 0.85. Answer: Compartment, which is fully involved in fire and flame inside the room as dull red, will release heat in the shape of radiations. Thermal radiation emission [W/m2] from the compartment considering the gray body model with ε = 0.85 will radiate at constant rate during the period from minimum to the optimum level of the flame. And than will observe a decreasing trend during the remaining period of the fire and the emission of heat as in the shape of radiation in the surrounding area of the fire. 9. Explain nomenclature of halon and freon systems (use examples of Halon 1211 and Freon CFC 11). Make a definition of environmental damage potential of halons and freons. Compare environmental damage potentials and atmospheric lifetimes of Halon 1211 and CFC 11. Answer: The nomenclature of Halons is base on a system of code numbers similar to that of Freon. The first digit specifies the number of carbon atoms, the second is the number of fluorine atoms, third for chlorine atoms and the fourth digit reflects the number of bromine atoms in the molecule. Freon is the trade name for a group of chlorofluorocarbons used in the refrigerators. The code names 1211 and 11 are used for Halon and Freon CFC, respectively. Both Halons and Freon are considered as damaging agents for the environment through their nature of chain reactions for ozone layer depletion.Atmospheric lifetimes of Halon 1211 is about 110 years and CFC 11 is 65 years. 10. Compare the chemical reaction rates at three temperatures – 300, 600 and 1200 K. The activation energy is 110 kJ/mole. Make your conclusion how temperature affects chemical reaction rate. Answer: The chemical reactions are influenced by increase or decrease in temperature in the system of the reaction. The reactants combine with each other and at the activation energy for example at 110 kJ/mole combine to release the products as the product of the reaction. Temperature has different impacts for endothermic and exothermic reactions. For endothermic reaction, increase in temperature will increase the rate of reaction as the higher temperatures mean higher velocities of the molecules of the reactants. It means that there will be less time between collisions and the frequency of collisions will increase. The increased number of collisions and the greater violence of collisions will result in collisions that are more effective and the rate for the reaction increases. Reaction rates for the chemical reactions are roughly doubled when the temperature increases by 10 degree Kelvin. The degree of reaction will increase with the same ratio for an increase in temperature from – 300, to 600 and to1200 K. However, for exothermic reactions ,the adverse position will be outcome with the same degree for change in temperature from – 300, 600 and 1200 K,respectively. References: 1. Karter, M., "NFPA Reports U.S. Fire Loss for 2006," NFPA Journal, September/October 2007. 2. Grosshandler, W.L., Bryner, N., and Madrzykowski, D., Report of the Technical Investigation of the Station Nightclub Fire, NIST NCSTAR 2, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, June 2005. 3. Henckle, H., "High-Rise Office Building in Downtown Madrid, Spain Engulfed by Flames, Top Floors Collapse" http://cms.firehouse.com/web/online/News/High-Rise-Office-Building-in-Downtown-Madrid--Spain-Engulfed-by-Flames--Top-Floors-Collapse/46$39297. 4. Babrauskas, V., Performance-Based Fire Safety Engineering Design:The Role of Fire Models and Fire Tests, pp. 799-807 in Interflam ’99, Interscience Communications Ltd., London (1999). 5. Babrauskas, V., Ensuring the Public’s Right to Adequate Fire Safety under Performance-Based Building Codes, pp. 167-175 in Proc. 1998 Pacific Rim Conf. and 2nd Intl. Conf. on Performance-Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, International Code Council/SFPE (1998). 6. Brannigan, V., and Smidts, C., Performance Based Fire Safety Regulation under Intentional Uncertainty, to appear in Fire and Materials. 7. Babrauskas, V., Fire Performance of Materials: Appropriate Selection through the Use of Modern Reaction-to-Fire Test Methods, presented at Brannvernkonferansen ’94, Trondheim, Norway (1994). 8. Babrauskas, V., Fire Modeling Tools for Fire Safety Engineering: Are They Good Enough? J. Fire Protection Engineering 8, 87-95 (1996). 9. Law, M., The Origins of the 5 MW Design Fire, Fire Safety Engineering 2, 17-20 (April 1995). 10. Bukowski, R. W., A Review of International Fire Risk Prediction Methods, pp. 437-446 in Interflam ’93.Interscience Communications Ltd, London (1993). 15. Windsor Castle - five years from disaster to triumph, BBC News Online, November 17, 1997 16. http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/biomass_burn/ozone.html Read More