Automotive Engine Blocks - Research Paper Example

UNIVERSITY AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE BLOCKS Name Course Date Automotive Engine Blocks Introduction One of the major discoveries in human achievement is the ingestion of the internal combustion engine. This engine has one major part, which is the engine block that is the largest single part of a vehicle (see figure 1). The engine block is required to handle increased pressures and high temperatures from the combustion of fuels in the block and high pressures of pistons. This means that materials used to make the engine block should be able to handle all these challenges. Most of the historical materials used were based on increased challenges. Use of iron alloys made engines to be of great weight reducing the fuel efficiency. This has led to revolutionary ideas that has seen development of numerous alloys with the right capabilities of meeting the needs of an engine block. The following paper aims at discussing the numerous materials used in making automotive engine blocks. Numerous issues such as the chemical and mechanical compositions, manufacturing processes, strengthening mechanisms, and the future light weighting technologies will be discussed. Figure 1 Engine Block History of materials used to make automotive engine blocks The automotive engine block is the largest and most significant part of the automobile or engine. This is where all the important processes of powering a car until it can move take place. This means that materials used to make engine blocks should be able to withstand great pressures and temperatures. In addition, the materials should be durable and strong to enable automobile to run effectively. Since the first developments of automobile engines, the materials used to make engine blocks have changed considerable. The evolution of using these materials has involved numerous experiments and led to cutting-edge technology and materials for the modern cars. The popular materials used for making automotive engine blocks include grey cast iron, graphite iron and aluminum. The earliest engine blocks were made from cast iron, but there is some evidence illustrating that one person, Charlie developed a cylinder block from aluminum in 1903. Another early material that was tested but proved ineffective was plastic. Ford apparently tested several engines that were mainly made of carbon fiber and plastic materials. The racing engine was impossible to run based on the high temperatures in the engine block. This is because both diesels fueled and conventional engine blocks are exposed to aggressive wear conditions, thermal strains, and high fatigue. The most used material for making engine blocks is grey cast iron and alloys. Grey cast iron is very heavy and in early times made vehicles to be very heavy. The cast grey iron has evolved to include new alloys that make it much stronger and durable. These alloys contains a 205-4 wt% carbon1-3 wt% silicon, 0.2-1.0 wt% manganese, 0.02-0.25 wt% msulfur, and 0.02-1.0 wt% phosphorous [10]. This combination makes this material excellent in terms of temperature resistance, damping capacity, and good wear as well as inexpensive to manufacture and easily machinable [15] (see figure 2). Nonetheless, the grey cast iron was and is still prone to deformation and fracture. This has resulted in yet another revolution where grey cast iron is gradually being replaced with compacted graphite iron. The compacted graphite cast iron was discovered unintentionally while engineers attempted to develop ductile cast iron. One of the main features of graphite cast iron is high tensile strength than grey cast iron despite its higher weight. Moreover, it also has the same features of grey cast iron, but is not easy to machine. This means that compacted graphite cast iron is limited in its use. Another major material used for making engine blocks is aluminum allows. These allow gained increased popularity in the 1960s in an attempt to reduce the overall weight of the automobile. Alluvium alloys have two main benefits including high fuel efficiency and an enhanced performance-to-weight ratio. Nonetheless, making aluminum alloys is expensive when compared to other materials. Aluminum has been used in numerous modern engines especially those that focus on increased fuel efficiency. Currently, engineers and automobile makers are experimenting on other alloys such as magnesium to increase the overall weight of the engine. Chemical compositions and mechanical properties of engine block materials Due to the high requirements of engine blocks, the materials used in this process all include different chemical features as well as mechanical properties. Grey cast iron comes from cast iron, which is basically an alloy composed on iron, silicon, and carbon. Grey cast iron is chemically composed of 2.5-4 wt% carbon1-3 wt% silicon, 0.2-1.0 wt% manganese, 0.02-0.25 wt% sulfur, and 0.02-1.0 wt% phosphorous [8-9]. Nonetheless, these compositions differ based on the mechanical property standards that are set. Basically, there are numerous standards or types of grey cast irons based on their use. However, this is the basic chemical composition of grey cast iron. When it comes to mechanical properties, grey is among the best materials for making engine blocks. Grey cast iron has a high compressive strength that is based on its ability to endure compressive forces with about a compressive strength of 33 ksi [16]. Additionally, grey cast iron has a high tensile strength with ability to withstand over 5 tons per inch. This however varies on the different varieties or standards of grey cast iron. Grey cast iron is also good in its dumping ability, wear resistance, and good galling. This makes iron easy to work with and provides all the needed capabilities of an engine block. The only problem with grey cast iron is its risk of deformation and wrap. Figure 2 BMW’s engine made of gray cast iron Compacted graphite cast iron is composed of the same chemical properties as grey cast iron, but the carbon content is increased through the introduction of graphite particles. Graphite particles are compacted to offer improved structural properties. This is achieved through the use of interconnected flakes. Compacted graphite cast iron is an enhanced version of the grey cast iron. This is because it has better machinability and makes it easy to work with. Moreover, it is also has high thermal conductivity. Its dumping is improved as well as improved tensile strength. Overall, the compacted graphite cast iron is offers greater or improved mechanical properties when compared to grey cast iron. Figure 3 Ford engine made from compacted graphite cast iron Aluminum alloys are also used to make engine blocks with two main varieties being specified for making engine blocks that include standard 319 and A356. The 319 standard as a chemical composition of 85.8-91.5 % aluminum, 5.5-6.5 % silicon, 3-4 % copper, 0.35% nickel, 0.25% titanium, 0.5% manganese, 1% iron, 0.1% magnesium, and 1% zinc [4]. This variety has good thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, and casting characteristics. It also presents increased tensile strength and rigidity for cylinder block use. Engines such as the Chevrolet Corvette (1997-2004) use the 319 specified aluminum alloys for its cylinder block [10,11,13]. The second aluminum alloy is composed of 91.1-93.3 % aluminum, 6.5-7.5% silicon, 0.25-0.45 % magnesium, and 0.2% copper, 0.2% titanium, 0.2% iron, and 0.1% zinc. This variety also has the same mechanical properties of the 319, but has increased tensile strength. Nonetheless, this variety has lower elasticity compared to 319. Overall, aluminum allows for increased performance-to-weight rations since they have less weight when compared to cast iron alloys. Figure 4 Chevrolet Corvette engine made from aluminum Lastly, magnesium alloys may soon be used to making cylinder blocks. Currently, no engine block is made from magnesium alloys, but it is used to make cylinder head covers, valve covers, rocker covers, and intake manifolds. Most automobile manufacturers prefer magnesium allows due to their light weight feature that is less than that of aluminum and cast iron alloys. The chemical composition of magnesium alloys includes two types of rare earth metals including cerium and lanthanum. Other chemical properties include magnesium, zinc, and cerium [15-14]. Magnesium alloys are great in corrosion resistance, high thermal conductivity, casting qualities, excellent machining, and outstanding dumping properties. The main challenge of magnesium allows is the availability and sustainability of raw materials required in its production. The biggest mechanical element of magnesium allows is the ability to reduce weight significantly, thus offering increased performance and fuel efficiency. The first car manufacturer to use magnesium alloys in making an engine block was BMW that resulted in a 57% reduction in the engine weight comported aluminum and cast iron alloys. The future may hold increased abilities and discoveries in this area to support production of magnesium alloys for cylinder blocks. Figure 5 BMW engine uses magnesium alloy for it cylinder block Manufacturing methods of automotive engine block materials There are numerous methods used to manufacture engine block materials. All metallic alloys are produced at foundries where there are adequate and effective machinery and safety operations. Grey cast iron is manufactured by6 melting a mixture of pig iron, coke, and steel scrap in a cupola [14]. The melted mixture is then separated by pouring it into moulds. The grey cast iron is then acquired by slow cooling of the molten mixture during solidification. Coke is used as fuel and fluxing agents such as graphite can also be used. The production process of engine block grey cast iron alloy requires the right chemical compositions before production [21]. The two most important elements in the grey cast iron in terms of mechanical and physical properties are silicon and carbon. The copula used to heat the metal until melting point contains acid. The carbon content is determined largely by the indicted with the metal compositions. The use of coke means that about 90% is combusted producing a small amount of carbon from the combustion. In this case, silicon is supplemented in the form of ferrosilicon or silvery iron to compensate for the lack of adequate silicon in steel scrap. Most of the carbon needed for the production of grey cast iron is produced from the metallic constituents of the charge. Therefore, the final carbon amount of the finished grey iron cast is changed by altering the quantities of pig iron to steel scrap in the cupola. The use of silicon and its amount in the mixture determines the ratio between cementite and graphite in the final grey cast iron. Additionally, most of the carbon needed for the final product or the specific standard of the grey cast iron comes from primarily the pig iron and scrap steel [33]. This means that the ratio of pig iron and scrap steel is rather fixed in the cupola, but the other elements can be regulated based on desired products. The mixture of these elements is then poured into molds that can be stored for slow cooling until the grey iron cast is developed. The same case applies to compacted graphite cast iron (CGI). However, CGI is manufactured by adding magnesium on a desulfurized base iron. The magnesium i9s what separates CGI from the grey cast iron. This is because CGI is similar to grey iron alloy, but the difference is that it’s more compacted or stronger. Actually, this is the most difficult part in the manufacture of CGI. This is because at the lower end, CGI is alienated by an unexpected transition of 0.001% magnesium [25-26]. When the magnesium added into the mixture is not sufficient or the magnesium level in the iron decreases due to fading, this can lead to flake-like graphite elements appearing in the cast. The overall implication of this is a reduction in the cast’s strength as well as stiffness. This means that magnesium evaporates at a rate of 0.001% every five minutes [14-15]. This means that during solidification magnesium is added to the right equivalent. This varies in terms of modularity that may lead changes in graphite microstructures such as graphite flakes. Nonetheless, its production in the optimal requirements results in the effective production of CGI. The produced CGI is an enhanced version of the grey cast iron based on the different improvement in terms physical and mechanical properties. After cooling, the CGI molds are tested according the right specifications. This means that CGIs for making automobile engine blocks should be able to meet all the required thermal conductivity, strength, corrosion resistance, and overall casting capabilities. The manufacture of aluminum alloys is based on its application. For the automobile or engine block casting needs, aluminum alloys are mixed with numerous metals. This includes magnesium, silicon, copper, titanium, and manganese [15, 17, 18]. This combination is mixed together in copula furnace with a specific choice of fuel. Silicon is added at a higher rate than other elements, because it potentially improves the ability of aluminum in terms of strength and resistance to corrosion. Again, use of silicon helps in reducing the melting temperature of aluminum and enhances fluidity. Addition of magnesium to the combination helps the alloy to become heat-treatable. Titanium helps allow by refining its grains. The process of manufacturing aluminum alloys is achieved by first mixing silicon and aluminum [18]. This requires the preparation of pure aluminum metal. This is mixed in the copula furnace and heated until molten. To modify its chemical components, titanium is added to the molten metal mixture. The molten state of aluminum makes it sensitive to numerous trace elements, but can be used as an advantage to ensure that it can be used or improve its casting microstructure and abilities. The process continues to the addition of the overall casting ability of aluminum alloy is further improved by adding nickel, magnesium, zinc, and titanium. This helps the molten aluminum and silicon alloy to become even stronger. Moreover, it improves the overall mechanical properties of the aluminum alloy. This includes the ability to resist corrosion, and high thermal conductivity. The molten metal is then cast in sand molds. This makes it possible for the aluminum alloy to cool so that it can be obtained for casting uses. The overall handling of the molten aluminum requires increased care to ensure that impurities and external objects are not included in the mixture. The overall process requires the right mixture of components that lies in the chemistry part of production. All elements or components added in the alloy should be of specific quantities; otherwise it may lead to the production of the wrong casting microstructure. Magnesium allows are popularly becoming the most common metal alloys for numerous application s especially in the automobile industry. What makes it very popular is the fact that it is the lightest of all structural metals in the world. Moreover, its alloy has all the necessary casting capabilities, which makes it qualified to make engine blocks. There are two main processes involved in producing magnesium. This occurs from the electrolysis of bonded anhydrous magnesium chloride that is sourced from magnesite, seawater, or brine [20]. This includes about 80% of the product, and a thermal decrease of magnesium oxide using ferrosilicon acquired from carbonate ores. The magnesium is balanced on a percentage portion that is then mixed with numerous metals including aluminum, zinc, magnesium, nickel, carbon, and manganese with an extra addition of rare earth metals such as lanthanum. To secure the essential corrosion resistance of the magnesium alloy it has to be mixed with a chemical composition. One of the main and common used processes of making magnesium alloys is through the Dow process. This requires the mixture of magnesium, calcium, and sodium found in the electrolyte cells. The use of dehydrated choline ensures that excess or additional water is extracted. Other methods rely on cell dehydrated carnalite that helps to reduce the anhydrous form [19]. A new process has emerged for creating the normal feedstock for anhydrous magnesium choline. However, the mixture of these metals is the basic metallurgic techniques that involve mixing and cooling molten mixtures of components. Schiometric calculations are used to determine the right composition of elements [21]. As illustrated earlier, the process requires addition of different elements that allows for the magnesium microstructure to change and develop the desired capabilities for casting. The process also involves semi-solid processing that is where liquid and metal are mixed together in the process [7]. The development of each magnesium alloys depends on its mechanical properties. However, the casting magnesium alloy used for making engine blocks has to be combined with all the important elements such as titanium, nickels, manganese, and zinc. The overall result is a storing resistance to corrosion as well as higher withstanding of tensile forces. Moreover, addition of copper helps in imprint the overall thermal conductivity of magnesium alloys. Alone, magnesium cells or grains have hexagonal structures that can be modified at different temperatures [22]. Amazingly, the magnesium alloy or metal can tend to become even stronger or much stiffer when in higher temperatures. This makes it effective for high combustion and increased pressure. Overall, the process also requires strict chemical combination that should follow effective procedures to ensure that ensure that all elements are mixed to the right proportion. Failure in any of the processes can be detrimental when it comes to the mechanical and physical properties of the magnesium alloy. Strengthening mechanism of automotive engine block materials There are numerous methods introduced for transforming the ductility, yield strength and toughness of amorphous and crystalline materials. All the materials used for making engine blocks have this capabilities, thus require strengthening. As indicated earlier, engine block are required to withstand high temperatures and pressures for a long time. This requires increased strengthening. Without strengthening many of the materials used for engine block manufacture would deform or wear off after some time, which is not effective and efficient in the automobile industry. The movement of dislocations within these materials makes it impossible for the material to be applicable for the desired use and conditions [16-7]. The entire strengthening mechanisms work top prohibit or hinder the mobility of dislocations in the different materials used for making engine blocks. Stress needed to stimulate dislocation motion is commands of greatness lower than the conceptual stress needed to shift a whole level of atoms. Therefore, the method of stress relief is actively auspicious. Furthermore, the strength and hardness both tensile and yield disapprovingly depend on the effortlessness where dislocations move. Pinning locations or points in the crystal that compete with the movement of the dislocations and solute atoms can be presented to decrease dislocation flexibility, thus increasing automated strength. When a material is strengthened, the force amount of stress needed to trigger permanent deformation or dislocation mobility is more than it was with the original material. Grey cast iron is strengthened through the use of work hardening mechanisms. The basis of work hardening mechanisms is the dislocations. When dislocations interrelate with each other in the grey cast iron structural components by generating stress grounds in the atoms and cells [23]. The interface between these stress fields of dislocations may hinder flexibility by attractive or repulsive interactions. Moreover, if two displacements cross, an entanglement happens, resulting in the development of a jog that opposes dislocation motion. The entanglements and nudges act as holding locations that oppose the motion of dislocations. Increased use of alloying to increase the density of dislocation is used in the strengthening of grey cast iron. This increases the yield strength to about 50ksi depending on the required specifications. Another method used for strengthening grey cast iron is through alloying. Alloying is basically adding the solute atoms of one element into another to offer increased strengthening. This produces a interstitial or substitutional point or locational defects in the crystal or atom panel [8]. The addition of different chemical elements onto grey iron ensures that6 they can easily inhibit dislocations flexibility. The use of magnesium, copper, and zinc makes it possible to improve the yield stress of grey cast iron. Different propositions in the manufacture of grey cast iron alloys is intended to ensure that reaches the required capacity in terms of yield stress and tensile strength. Therefore, the ability to get all the right proportions is important in ensuring that the needed yield stress and strength is achieved. The theoretical formula of needed shear stress needed to displace dislocations in the alloy is indicated in the picture below [26]. Figure 6. The c represents the solute concentrate and while the e illustrates the material caused or developed by the solute. Use of copper and titanium helps the grey cast oil help to enhance the concentration of the solute particles, which in turn amplifies the yield strength of the output alloy or combination. Nonetheless, adding the copper, zinc, or titanium is limited in terms of the amount that can be used in making the alloy. If reduced material is used in the strengthening process, this may lead to a lower quality alloy that may not be effective in withstanding the high pressure and strength needed to withstand its use in the engine blocks [27]. Additionally, adding too much of other element or metals may increase the yield strength or tensile stress thus making it unsuitable for casting. Overall, lack of proper or well-developed concentrations for the alloy makes it impossible to machine the alloy into an engine block. Different materials have been used for different strengthening requirements. These materials have evolved from simple combinations to complex combinations that also enable increased strengthening [28-29]. Lastly, grey cast iron also uses dry aging treatments. This is a process that takes place during the production of the grey cast iron alloy. When melting the mixture of pig iron, steel scrap, and coke, the molten liquid is set at aging temporaries of about 700 degrees Celsius and then cooling it to another level that it remains cooling for up to eight hours. Testing o tensile strength and yield strength have indicated increased ability to withstand stress by about 0.25 to 2.5% [30-31]. Dry aging is also an effective method of increasing the ability of mixed elements to withstand increased stress and reduce the dislocations mobility, thus strengthening the overall alloy. The same case applies to compacted graphite cast iron. Nonetheless, this requires different methods that can include the age strengthening mechanism. The use of controlled ladles is important in ensuring that the right mechanical properties are achieved. Furthermore, the use of magnesium treatment and inoculation is also a strengthening method that issued to increase the strength of the alloy. Magnesium is added to help the overall process of making the alloy tighter or ability to enhance the yield stress. Different transformation occur when these mechanisms are used especially inoculations and cooling curves. The aging method is also setting controlled cooling temperatures that increase the overall stretch of the alloy. Aluminum and silicon alloys are strengthened through the solid solution method. This is achieved by substituting the solute atoms for aluminum leading to distorts on the crystal lattice and inhibits dislocation mobility resulting in increased yield strength. Another method used to strengthen aluminum alloys is through age hardening. Heat treatment through the aging methods help in making finer dispersion of causes thus increasing overall strength. Age hardening has helped produce some of the strongest aluminum alloys such as the 6xxx and 7xxx series of alloys [32-33]. Age hardening is based on different stages and process that increase strength continuously. Coherency strain hardening comes from the collaboration between strain fields and dislocations surrounding what is known as adjacent zones. Another stage in the hardening is chemical hardening that comes from applying stress needed for a displacement to cut across a coherent precipitate. This results in the development of anti-phase boundary with a planned precipitate. This is mixed in the copula furnace and heated until molten. To modify its chemical components, titanium is added to the molten metal mixture. The molten state of aluminum makes it sensitive to numerous trace elements, but can be used as an advantage to ensure that it can be used or improve its casting microstructure and abilities. The process continues to the addition of the overall casting ability of aluminum alloy is further improved by adding nickel, magnesium, zinc, and titanium. This helps the molten aluminum and silicon alloy to become even stronger. Moreover, it improves the overall mechanical properties of the aluminum alloy. This includes the ability to resist corrosion, and high thermal conductivity. The molten metal is then cast in sand molds. This makes it possible for the aluminum alloy to cool so that it can be obtained for casting uses. The overall handling of the molten aluminum requires increased care to ensure that impurities and external objects are not included in the mixture. The overall process requires the right mixture of components that lies in the chemistry part of production. Another method is based on dispersion hardening, which occurs in aluminum alloys that have been over aged. The hardening leads to amplified shear stress needed for dislocations to avoid or impend these obstacles. The use orwan bowing is a mechanism that can help achieve this. Precipitation strengthening is also used to ensure that when aluminum reacts with the different metals it ensures that particles made finer through the use of elements such as magnesium and titanium. Using magnesium ensures that the particles or atoms produced by the mixture that are about 0.001mm fine. This means that the final product will have increased yield strength. Furthermore, the precipitation strengthening mechanisms ensures that the aluminum alloy has high yield strength that is five times more than the unalloyed aluminum. However, the yield strength depends on the alloy used and aging treatment temperature. Use of titanium also helps to ensure that the aluminum grain particles to ensure smooth distribution of particles resulting in increased toughness and tensile strength. Magnesium alloys are also strengthened using the solid precipitation method that requires the addition of solid or liquid to solid components. This means that new metals can be used to strength magnesium and make more durable. The addition of nickels, copper, zinc, and manganese ensures that it has the ability to withstand dislocations. Moreover, it helps to ensure resistance to increased movement of dislocations thus reducing the ability to deform. Moreover, age hardening mechanism is also used as magnesium becomes even stronger than before at certain temperatures. Therefore, use of heat treatment methods can help to increase the structure of magnesium atoms and enable increased stability, tensile strength, and yield strength. However, the casting magnesium alloy used for making engine blocks has to be combined with all the important elements such as titanium, nickels, manganese, and zinc. The overall result is a storing resistance to corrosion as well as higher withstanding of tensile forces. Moreover, addition of copper helps in imprint the overall thermal conductivity of magnesium alloys. Alone, magnesium cells or grains have hexagonal structures that can be modified at different temperatures [22]. Amazingly, the magnesium alloy or metal can tend to become even stronger or much stiffer when in higher temperatures. This makes it effective for high combustion and increased pressure. Overall, the process also requires strict chemical combination that should follow effective procedures to ensure that ensure that all elements are mixed to the right proportion. Failure in any of the processes can be detrimental when it comes to the mechanical and physical properties of the magnesium alloy. Recycling issues and future developments (light weighting) of automotive engine block materials The recycling of these materials is important in ensuring that not much industrial waste is left destroying the environment. Grey cast iron can be recycled through heating and melting of engine blocks [1-3]. Numerous methods such as leaching of residue can lead to solvent extraction and stripping. Different recycling methods are needed to retrieve precious elements that can be used for proper application in the automobile industry. Different agents are added into the old scraps based on the need to retrieve or recover certain agents such as zinc and iron. Nonetheless, the issue of solid waste is becoming an increasingly huge challenge based on environmental challenges. Governments and the community bear increased economic costs based on the increased dumping of solid wastes. Changes in the 21st century has introduced new policy and manufacturing standards that ensure increased recycling of these materials. Overall, these changes are needed to ensure a safe and strong environment for future sustainability. The future developments of light weighting has seen increased focus on newer alloying technologies that make it easy to develop light weight engine blocks. One of the main potential materials for making engine blocks is magnesium alloys. The properties of magnesium make it one of the most light weight and strongest materials for use or with the casting capabilities that are required for making engine blocks. Engineers and car manufacturers are increasingly testing new alloy mixtures that can be used to make durable and effective engine blocks. This has also covered the use aluminum alloys that are enriched with additional materials to produce effective lightweight materials. Conclusion In conclusion, automotive engine blocks are made from grey cast iron, compacted graphite cast iron, aluminum alloy, and magnesium alloys. Grey iron cast is among the most used material for building engine blocks. It has all the needed physical and mechanical properties that are required for engine blocks. This material is manufactured by mixing and melting steel scrap, pig iron, coke, and silicon flakes. This makes it durable and develops the needed physical and automotive capabilities. The strengthening of grey cast iron is based on age hardening through heat treatment. The same case applies to the compacted graphite. One of the main features of graphite cast iron is high tensile strength than grey cast iron despite its higher weight. However, CGI is manufactured by adding magnesium on a desulfurized base iron. Aluminum alloys are also used to make engine blocks with two main varieties being specified for making engine blocks that include standard 319 and A356. The manufacture of aluminum alloys is based on its application. For the automobile or engine block casting needs, aluminum alloys are mixed with numerous metals. This includes magnesium, silicon, copper, titanium, and manganese. Most automobile manufacturers prefer magnesium allows due to their light weight feature that is less than that of aluminum and cast iron alloys. The chemical composition of magnesium alloys includes two types of rare earth metals including cerium and lanthanum. These are some of the main issues in the engineering part of automotive engine blocks. Increased technologies and discoveries will enable the development of magnesium light weight alloys that can be used for fuel-efficient engines. ` Bibliography 1. Mbuya, T. O., Odera, B. O., Ng'ang'a, S. P., & Oduori, F. M. (2011). Effective Recycling of Cast Aluminium Alloys for Small Foundries. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 12(2). 2. Ditze, André, and Christiane Scharf. Recycling of Magnesium. Ditze & Scharf, 2008. 3. Laila, Assayidatul, Makoto Nanko, and Masatoshi Takeda. "Upgrade Recycling of Cast Iron Scrap Chips towards β-FeSi2 Thermoelectric Materials." Materials7, no. 9 (2014): 6304-6316. 4. Kainer, Karl U., ed. Magnesium alloys and technologies. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. 5. Mondolfo, Lucio F. Aluminum alloys: structure and properties. Elsevier, 2013. 6. Schaum, J. H. Stress Relief of Gray Cast Iron. No. NRL-3296. NAVAL RESEARCH LAB WASHINGTON DC, 1948. 7. Sillekens, Wilhelmus Hubertina, Müge Erinç, Raymond Gerardus Theodorus Marie Mannens, and Robert Jan Werkhoven. "Process for manufacturing magnesium alloy based products." U.S. Patent Application 13/201,276, filed February 12, 2010. 8. Watari, H., K. Davey, M. T. Rasgado, T. Haga, and S. Izawa. "Semi-solid manufacturing process of magnesium alloys by twin-roll casting." Journal of Materials Processing Technology 155 (2004): 1662-1667. 9. De Garmo, Ernest P., J. Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser. DeGarmo's materials and processes in manufacturing. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. 10. Suarez, O. M., and C. R. Loper Jr. "Production of Compacted Graphite Irons Through Two-Step Treatment Method." Metallurgical Science and Tecnology19, no. 2 (2013). 11. Lee, Jonathan A. "Cast aluminum alloy for high temperature applications." InThe 132nd TMS Annual Meeting and Exhibition San Diego Convention Center, San Diego, NASA/Marshal Space Flight Center (MSFC). 2003. 12. Specht, Oscar G., and Frederick A. Stephens. "Production of grey cast iron." U.S. Patent 3,214,267, issued October 26, 1965. 13. Stojczew, A., K. Janerka, J. Jezierski, J. Szajnar, and M. Pawlyta. "Melting of Grey Cast Iron Based on Steel Scrap Using Silicon Carbide." Archives of Foundry Engineering 14, no. 3 (2014): 77-82. 14. Polmear, I. J. "Magnesium alloys and applications." Materials science and technology 10, no. 1 (1994): 1-16. 15. Avedesian, Michael M., and Hugh Baker. "ASM speciality handbook: magnesium and magnesium alloys." New York: ASM International 27 (1999). 16. Mordike, B. L., and Tü Ebert. "Magnesium: properties—applications—potential." Materials Science and Engineering: A 302, no. 1 (2001): 37-45. 17. Aghion, E., and Boris Bronfin. "Magnesium alloys development towards the 21st century." In Materials Science Forum, vol. 350, pp. 19-30. 2000. 18. Kainer, Karl U., ed. Magnesium alloys and technologies. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. 19. Kulekci, Mustafa Kemal. "Magnesium and its alloys applications in automotive industry." The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 39, no. 9-10 (2008): 851-865. 20. Fridlyander, I. N., V. G. Sister, O. E. Grushko, V. V. Berstenev, L. M. Sheveleva, and L. A. Ivanova. "Aluminum alloys: Promising materials in the automotive industry." Metal science and heat treatment 44, no. 9-10 (2002): 365-370. 21. Davis, Joseph R. Aluminum and aluminum alloys. Edited by Joseph R. Davis. ASM international, 1993. 22. Aluminum Association. Aluminum: properties and physical metallurgy. Edited by John E. Hatch. ASM International, 1984. 23. Dawson, Steve, I. Hollinger, M. Robbins, John Daeth, U. Reuter, and H. Schulz. The effect of metallurgical variables on the machinability of compacted graphite iron. No. 2001-01-0409. SAE Technical Paper, 2001. 24. Cho, M. H., S. J. Kim, R. H. Basch, J. W. Fash, and H. Jang. "Tribological study of gray cast iron with automotive brake linings: The effect of rotor microstructure." Tribology International 36, no. 7 (2003): 537-545. 25. Ramesh, K. C., and R. Sagar. "Fabrication of metal matrix composite automotive parts." The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 15, no. 2 (1999): 114-118. 26. Mocellin, F., E. Melleras, W. L. Guesser, and L. Boehs. "Study of the machinability of compacted graphite iron for drilling process." Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 26, no. 1 (2004): 22-27. 27. Davis, Joseph R., ed. Alloying: understanding the basics. ASM international, 2001. 28. Brungs, D. "Light weight design with light metal castings." Materials & design18, no. 4 (1997): 285-291. 29. Stodolsky, Frank, Anant Vyas, Roy Cuenca, and Linda Gaines. Life-cycle energy savings potential from aluminum-intensive vehicles. No. 951837. SAE Technical Paper, 1995. 30. Leatham, Alan. "Spray forming: alloys, products and markets." Metal Powder Report 54, no. 5 (1999): 28-37. 31. Kaye, Alan, and Arthur Street. Die Casting Metallurgy: Butterworths Monographs in Materials. Elsevier, 2013. 32. Leyens, Christoph, and Manfred Peters. Titanium and titanium alloys. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2003. 33. Miller, W. S., L. Zhuang, J. Bottema, A_J Wittebrood, P. De Smet, A. Haszler, and A. Vieregge. "Recent development in aluminium alloys for the automotive industry." Materials Science and Engineering: A 280, no. 1 (2000): 37-49. 34. Luo, Alan A. "Magnesium: current and potential automotive applications." jom54, no. 2 (2002): 42-48. 35. Scharf, C. "Recycling of Magnesium Alloys." Magnesium-Alloys and Technology: 254-278. Read More