Strategies of Design for Fire Safety - Assignment Example

University of Central Lancashire School of Forensic and Investigative Sciences FV2003 Report Assignment Student Name Course Lecturer Due Date Question 1 a) Evaluate possible building construction methods and materials used. The design of a building is the first and probably the most crucial stage in the life cycle of construction. The success of other stages of the life cycle, construction and post-construction, is dependent on how well the design phase is executed. It is in the design phase that the method of construction and the materials to be used are defined. This phase of construction must adhere to the British Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) standards (Hill and Bowen 2011, 24). To acquire the excellent BREEAM rating, the following building methods and materials are to be used for the seven-storey hotel in Preston. The design of the hotel encompasses a central atrium that runs to the roof to ensure high levels of natural daylight. Further, a mixed mode ventilation strategy is to be adopted. The approach consists of manually and automatically triggered windows to provide maximum thermal comfort. Mechanical ventilation is to be used for selected ground floor areas. High-level windows in the atrium will provide ventilation in mid-season conditions. The primary source of heating will be ground source heat pumps. Gas boilers will supplement the heat pumps. Fan coal units that will be located in raised floor voids will provide zoned heating. The ground source heat pumps will double as the heat source and the primary cooling source. Roof mounted solar panels will provide hot water while photovoltaic panels will supplement the mains electricity. WC flushing will be achieved through rainwater harvesting and storage. A leak detection system capable of detecting all the main leaks within the building will also be fitted (Hill and Bowen 2011, 34). The ground floor will house a restaurant, a lobby and retail outlets. The bedrooms and other upper levels will be constructed on the ground floor podium. The hotel will also include an underground car parking. Based on the above design specifications, off-site steel transfer structure will be used. An adequate fire resistance strategy will be adopted. The strategy will involve compartmentalization because of the differences in fire safety measures to be taken at different levels. In addition, acoustic insulation will be adhered to (Halliday 2008, 125). b) Describe possible strategies of design for fire safety, taking into consideration environmental and economic constraints on the building. The first approach relates to the means of escape in case of a fire. Under means to escape in the event of fire, the building will have routes of escape that are sufficient and suitably located. These routes will have sufficient enclosure from the effects of fire and made of fire resistant materials such as steel. In addition, the routes of escape will be installed with sufficient lighting. They will also have a means of smoke control and automated and manual alarm systems with adequate user information, to warn occupants of the existence of fire. Trigger devices for the alarm systems will be installed in all guest rooms as well as pathways throughout the building. The escape routes will be different from the usual corridors and staircases, and will be left open at all times (Pitt et al. 2009, 204). In reference to Internal fire spread (linings), the building will be fitted with internal linings that have a high rate of heat release. In addition, the linings will have a high resistance to ignition and give sufficient resistance to the spread of flames above their planes. Floors, staircases, furniture and fittings will be designed in a way that will meet the provisions of "Code of Practice for Fire Safety of Furnishings and Fittings in Places of Assembly". The building will be constructed in such a way that it can remain stable for an adequate period in the event of a fire. It will further be sub-divided with fire resistant construction materials to inhibit the spread of fire. The design will also cater for the inhibition of unseen spread of fire and smoke in concealed spaces (Sawyer, De Wilde, and Turpin-Brooks 2008, 143). In reference to firefighting and evacuation, the building will be installed with a sprinkler protection system, operated manually and automatically. It will also be fitted with adequate firefighting appliances with clear instructions for use. A smoke control system for the atrium will also be installed. In addition, evacuation procedure information will be displayed all over the building. Fire assembly points will be established in designated areas outside the building. Also, all members of the staff will undertake training in fire evacuation procedures c) Make formal a conclusion and recommendations for development of sustainable construction in the UK. The development of sustainable construction in the UK is not only a necessary step towards the achievement of overall development, but also a compulsory one. The issue of primary concern in this step is to address the carbon emission arising from energy used in the construction, occupation and operation of buildings in the UK. The carbon emission accounts for half of all the country’s emission. Through the implementation of BREEAM, the government has to a great extent achieved the goal of reduction of carbon emissions from buildings. However, sustainable construction goes beyond energy and carbon impacts of construction and design. In the light of this, the following recommendations can help achieve a long-term reduction in carbon emissions through dealing with the very source of these emissions (Haapio 2012, 332). The stakeholders in the development process should minimize resource use for energy and water, enhance and protect green infrastructure and biodiversity, and see to it that the built environment is resistant to the effect of climatic change. In addition, they should ensure that materials used for construction are sourced responsibility and minimize waste. It is also their mandate to see to it that buildings and spaces are healthy and pleasant for occupiers and users (Pitt et al. 2009, 212). Question 2 Discuss fire safety engineering issues of your case studies with reference to buildings of varying types and levels of occupancy. Provide your opinion on lessons learned from your case studies and your possible recommendations how to prevent possibilities of the similar fires in future. Make formal conclusion for your case studies. 1. Kiss Night Club Fire (Brazil) The fire lasted for 30 minutes between 2.00 and 2:30 on the 27th of January 2013. It occurred in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and killed 242 people and injured 630 others. The fire was the second worst in the history of Brazil. The fire was caused by an illegal indoor use of pyrotechnics (either a flare of firework). The pyrotechnic device then ignited flammable acoustic foam in the ceiling Most of the casualties of the fire were college students who were holding a fresher’s ball in the hotel. Major fire safety engineering flaws can be identified from the case above. First, an investigation into the case revealed that most people died as a result of the resultant stampede, lack of emergency exits and the absence of exit signs. Secondly, the fire spread because of the flammable material used for the ceiling. Ceilings ought to be made from materials that are not easily ignited. Thirdly, the investigation revealed that 90% of the casualties died as a result of smoke inhalation. They mistook bathrooms for exits. The deaths from smoke inhalation point to flaws in the design (Strick 2014, 211). The cause of the fire was an illegal indoor use of an outdoor explosive device. The lesson learnt from this is that building administrative authorities must ensure that all fire construction guidelines are implemented to the letter. Also, the investigation into the case revealed that the night club had been licensed by the fire department on false information. The lesson from this is that licensing authorities must conduct frequent appraisals to ascertain the condition of fire prevention and combat meets the specification. 2. Suffolk Food Hall Fire (UK) The fire occurred on the 27thof January 2010 at The Suffolk Food Hall, Ipswich. The fire started in the boiler room. It covered about 20 metres. The design of the roof prevented the fire from spreading over the 50 metre-long roofs. The fire took approximately 20-25 minutes. No casualties were reported, mainly because the fire occurred at night when the businesses had closed down. A number of fire safety engineering issues can be identified from the above case. First, the metal clad walls insulated with glass fibre prevented the fire from spreading from mezzanine plant area where it started to the rest of the building. Secondly, the roof sandwich panels made of PIR core material did not transmit the fire across walls surrounding the plant area. Also, fire did not penetrate the PIR core. The major lesson learnt from this incident is the importance of adhering to fire safety engineering guidelines especially concerning building methods and materials. The loss from the Suffolk Food House case above is minimal because the building adhered to the guide. Further, the design of the building made it easier for the fire brigade to fight and contain the fire from spreading too far. The building had adequate apertures. Adherence to the guidelines left the management with just a simple cleanup job before resuming business (Hasofer and Thomas 2006, 101). Question 3 Nomenclature of halons and freons Halons and freons are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are nonflammable and nontoxic chemicals that contain Chlorine, Fluorine and Carbon. They are usually used to manufacture blowing agents, aerosol sprays and in refrigerators among others. While halons are known to cause extensive depletion of the ozone layer, freons are less harsh In depletion, and some do not deplete the ozone layer at all. The two substances fall in a class of compounds known as halocarbons, which are substances made up of one or two carbon atoms joined to one or more halogen atoms by covalent bonds (Nimitz, Tapscott, and Skaggs 2012, 214). Fluorocarbons containing at least one bromine and no hydrogen are called halogens. The nomenclature for naming halons uses i j k l, where i= number of carbon atoms, j = number of fluorine atoms, k= number of chlorine atoms, and l = number of bromine. Halon-2402, for example is C2F4 Br2, and Halon-1211 is CF2ClBr. The nomenclature for naming freons is a bit simpler. To get the molecular formula for CFC/R/Freon compounds, the numbering is added to 90. The first, second and third numerals of the resultant number give the number of carbon, hydrogen and fluorine atoms respectively. Chlorine atoms occupy the unaccounted carbon bonds. For instance, CFC-12 gives 90+12= 102. Hence,CFC-12 has 1 carbon, 0 hydrogen and 2 fluorine atoms. The formula then becomes CCl2F2. Those freons that contain bromine atoms are signified by four numbers. They are sometimes referred to as halons (Brominated freons) (Nimitz, Tapscott, and Skaggs 2012, 214). Discuss environmental impacts of halons and reasons for halon replacement in fire protection industry under the Montreal Protocol. Halons have destructive effects on the environment. First, they deplete the ozone layer. Their impact on the ozone layer is severe because they are widely used to manufacture fire extinguishers. Halons are capable of extinguishing a variety of fires such as electronics, inflammable liquids and combustibles. They also derive their extensive use from their nonconductive and noncorrosive features. Due to their long lifetime, they migrate to the upper atmosphere. Upon contact with ultraviolet light, they react chemically and deplete the ozone layer. Secondly, halogens cause global warming. The continued use of halons causes accumulation of their constituent substances in the atmosphere. When halogens accumulate in the atmosphere, they limit the free movement of gases that results in global warming. In addition, some of these halogens react with other gases in the atmosphere producing destructive chemicals. For example, when chlorine reacts with water vapour in the atmosphere, the product is hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids that later come down as acid rain. Acid rain corrodes plants and contaminates aquatic life. The ozone layer (stratosphere) plays a vital role in the protection of life on earth. It protects human, plant and animal life from the harmful effects of radiation from the sun. Halons (and other chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are known to deplete the ozone layer. Research undertaken in the 1980s by scientists proved that the ozone layer was continuously being depleted by atmospheric emissions of CFCs. The solution to this was the signing of the Montreal Protocol. The protocol identified the major ozone –depleting substances (ODS). It also drew a timetable for their phase-out (Penner 2009, 34). One of the major ODS was identified as halons. Halons are highly effective explosion suppressants and firefighting agents. These features led to their use all over the world, explaining their potential of depleting the ozone layer. The protocol developed two strategies to phase out the use of halons, with 175 countries signing the agreement. The first plan involved the enactment of limitations in the use of halons, allowing only critical use. Halons would only be used for processes without alternatives. The second strategy involved the substitution of halons with non-reactive or fewer reactive substances (Penner 2009, 43). The halon replacement adopted by the Montreal Protocol was the right decision. The alternative fire protection and control technology adopted by this agreement went a long way in reducing the destructive effects on the ozone layer. In addition, the replacement directive opened up numerous business opportunities. The efficacy of the replacement, however, was purely dependent on the capability of the member countries to effect the phasing out. Those countries with operational standards and code of practice were able to achieve the benefits of the phasing out. Member states without such a foundation were, however, unable to effect the phasing out strategy. The failure of these countries possibly explains why halons still pose a danger to the ozone layer to date. Governments and non-governmental organizations have not relented in this battle. Question 4 Explain what different and common issues between the Fahrenheit/Rankine and the Celsius/Kelvin temperature scales. Kelvin is the SI unit used to measure temperature. The Kelvin scale makes one of the seven base units of the International System of Units. The scale uses the absolute zero as its null point and is, therefore, an absolute temperature scale. The kelvin is defined as the 1⁄273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (0.008 °C or 32.018 °F). The Celsius scale (°C) is the most widely used temperature measurement scale. The scale is similar to the Kelvin scale in that it also uses incremental scaling. The null point of the Celsius scale is the approximate freezing point of water, 0°C = 273.15K. In the US, the scale used for common purposes is the Fahrenheit Scale. The freezing point of water in this scale is 32 °F while the boiling point is 212 °F. The freezing and the boiling temperature of water within this scale are defined under standard atmospheric pressure conditions. A degree on the Fahrenheit scale represents a movement of 1⁄180 steps on the interval between the freezing and the boiling point of water. Like the Kelvin scale, the Rankine scale is an absolute temperature scale since also uses the absolute zero as its null point. The difference between the Rankine scale and the Kelvin scale is in the definition of the degree. The Rankine degree is expressed as equal to one degree Fahrenheit, rather than the one degree Celsius used on the Kelvin scale. In fact, a temperature of 0 °R is exactly equal to −459.67 °F (Georgian 1964, 67). References Georgian, J. C. “The Temperature Scale.” (1964): n. pag. Google Scholar. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. Haapio, Appu. “Towards Sustainable Urban Communities.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 32.1 (2012): 165–169. Print. Halliday, Sandy. Sustainable Construction. Routledge, 2008. Google Scholar. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. Hasofer, Abraham Michael, and Isabelle Thomas. “Analysis of Fatalities and Injuries in Building Fire Statistics.” Fire Safety Journal 41.1 (2006): 2–14. Print. Hill, Richard C., and Paul A. Bowen. “Sustainable Construction: Principles and a Framework for Attainment.” Construction Management & Economics 15.3 (2011): 223–239. Print. Nimitz, Jonathan S., Robert E. Tapscott, and Stephanie R. Skaggs. Fire Extinguishing Agents for Flooding Applications. Google Patents, 2012. Google Scholar. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. Penner, Joyce E. Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of IPCC Working Groups I and III in Collaboration with the Scientific Assessment Panel to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. Cambridge University Press, 2009. Google Scholar. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. Pitt, Michael et al. “Towards Sustainable Construction: Promotion and Best Practices.” Construction innovation 9.2 (2009): 201–224. Print. Sawyer, Louise, Pieter De Wilde, and Sue Turpin-Brooks. “Energy Performance and Occupancy Satisfaction: A Comparison of Two Closely Related Buildings.” Facilities 26.13/14 (2008): 542–551. Print. Strick, Jonathan. “Development of Safety Measures for Nightclubs.” LUTVDG/TVBB (2014): n. pag. Google Scholar. Web. 2 Mar. 2015. Read More