How Saudi Female Students are Affected by Code-Switching - Literature review Example

CODE SWITCHING (LINGUISTICS) CODE SWITCHING (LINGUISTICS) Insert name Insert grade course Insert instructor’s name March 31, 2011. Introduction Individuals who have learned more than one language exhibit an interesting phenomenon commonly known as ‘code-switching’ by mixing words or phrases from the two tongues together in the course of speech or writing. A ‘code’ can be termed as a language or a dialect. Code-switching (CS) is a fluctuation of terms and expressions between two languages or dialects. This normally takes place between persons who share and understand those particular languages. Fluctuation between languages in the form of code-switching is an extensively practical occurrence in foreign language classrooms. Different bi-lingual speakers switch their languages with easiness at various points in conversation or in writing. Individuals generally switch code in the process of their day by day discussion. Several learned persons who are smooth in English as their subsequent language (L2), frequently utilize code-switching by slotting in English terms, idioms or sentences into their discussions. Bista noted that code-switching is determined by several social and linguistic aspects. It is extensively used in multi-lingual and multi-cultural communities. In Asian countries like Nepal, India, Pakistan, china and Saudi Arabia, speakers who are bi-lingual normally have English as their subsequent language (L2) and their primary language (L1) is their mother tongue and parlance (Bista, 2010 p. 2). There are various reasons as to why the bi-lingual speakers alternate the codes during conversation. We normally tend to study code-switching so as to understand the reason as to why individuals who are proficient in two languages interchange words or phrases in specific circumstances. While code-switching has been observed in preceding studies, researchers have not paid attention on the issues touching bi-lingual global students learning English in institutions of higher education. This thesis explores how Saudi female students are affected by code-switching and also the aspects that establish code-switching amongst non-native speakers of English (Saudi female students in particular) in college level English program. In the literature review, various terms like code-switching, code mixing and linguistic borrowing will be discussed, and various types of code-switching will be mentioned as well as the research that has been done on code-switching. Then I will discus how code-switching has become a site for socio-cultural conflicts in Saudi and other Arab Nations. Women and code-switching will as well be discussed and the motivations or reasons for code switching and I will finalize by discussing the research problem. The paper explores the motivations for code-switching among students or peers as a language that is commonly used in social networking such as twitter and face-book. University students have high tendency of using social networks as a form of identifying with others and forming solidarities. I will discuss the factors that motives code-switching among the Saudi females. Literature review Code-switching can be referred to as the alternating employ of two or more languages in the same statement or discussion. Code-switching can be taken to refer only to those cases where bilingual speakers alternate between codes within the same speech event, switch codes within a single turn, or mix elements from two codes within the same utterance (Roxana, 2010 p. 5). The Saudi female students are mainly involved in what seems to be an effortless switch between the two languages that they speak. This switch normally happens within the same conversational turn or when there is a shift to a different register brought about by changes in setting, interlocutor, conversational goals as well as other social factors. Code-switching in Saudi female students comprises of several kinds of bilingual language mixture, including the irregular use of comparatively complete statements from two dissimilar languages, changing between sentential and/ or clausal compositions from the two languages, and the introduction of (normally lexical) fundamentals from one language into the other (Roxana, 2010 p. 5). These types of language mixture have long been the norm in many communities, and have become increasingly common as a result of various socio-historical forces that have led to increasing contact among different language groups within the same national and local communities. There is now a long tradition of research on code-switching phenomenon within linguistics, socio-linguistics, and more recently, psycho-linguistics. Scholars have always envisioned the study of code-switching as an essentially multi-disciplinary enterprise. Weinreich (1953 p. 32), the acknowledged pioneer in the field of contact linguistics, emphasized that an explanatory framework for the study of language contact phenomenon ought to include purely structural considerations, psychological reasons as well as social factors. He noticed that purely linguistic approaches to contact phenomena are not enough if we are to explain the causes and outcomes of such phenomena. He pointed to the urge to assess also the social contexts of language contact, as well as the psycho-linguistic facets of bi-lingualism such as speaker’s relative proficiency in each language, his ability to keep two languages apart, and in the manner in which he learned each language (Isurin, Winford & Bot, 2009 p. 29). In spite of this call for an integrated, interdisciplinary approach, there have traditionally been reasonably sharp dividing lines between linguistic, psycho-linguistic, and socio-linguistic research in language behavior research. This is particularly true for research on code-switching, which has spawned a huge literature in each of the three fields. Linguistics have mainly been concerned only with structural aspects of code-switching and with formulating constraints on it based on some theoretical model. On the other hand, socio-linguistics have dealt with the social motivations and social correlates of code-switching. Psycho-linguistics on the other side have focused on questions concerning how bilinguals’ linguistic systems are stored and organized in the cognitive system, and how they are accessed in language perception and production. Previous Research in code-switching There are numerous researchers who have considered the roles, features, influential factors and consequences of code-switching in an extensive assortment of linguistics realms. Gumperz (1982 p. 12), in a seminal work recognizes six roles of code-switching namely: “Quotation, Addressee specification, Repetition, Interjection, Message qualification and Personification”. In year 2006, Sert studied concerning the probable use of code-switching in learning frameworks in bilingual society and discovered that its role is to bring an realism to dialogue and to assist the reader better construe the thoughts being conversed. From his study, we can get more factors that determine code-switching among students. They are: Equivalence, Floor holding, Reiteration, and conflict control (Sert, 2006 p. 6). According to a number of intellectuals of linguistics, as stated in Ayeomoni (2006 p. 4), the factors that determine code-switching are: intra-group distinctiveness, poetic imagination as well as the expression of transformation. Reyes (2004) notes that kids switch codes when they are not aware of the word in the attained or target tongue. Further study results have demonstrated that one of the main aspects of code-switching is that fundamentals of the other language express the sense of the anticipated idea more perfectly (Elsaadany, 2009 p. 3). Code-switching and contextualization One of the most influential socio-cultural linguists in the study of code-switching was John J. Gumperz. His work on code-switching and contextualization has been influential in the fields of socio-linguistics, linguistic anthropology, as well as the sociology of language. He discovered that the bond linking speakers affects the choice of language variety. The idea that linguistic form is influenced by setting and participants along with topic was influenced partly by Ervin-Tripp (1964 p. 54). Her study of bilingual Japanese-born women living in the United States demonstrated substantial correlation linking language choice and discourse content, offering an example of semantic analysis of language choice that while influential (e.g. Myers-Scotton 1993), would be criticized as only partial and approximate. Gumperz and Blom, in their study found out that social events, defined in terms of participants, setting and topic, limit the selection of linguistic variables. They noted that among groups of young men greeting each other in workshops, the variety of language used differed from that used by teachers presenting text material in the public school. Different social events may involve the same participants in the same setting when the topic shifts. Code-switching signals contextual information equivalent to what in monolingual settings is conveyed through prosody or other syntactic or lexical process (Nilep, 2006 p. 9). Types of code-switching There are normally four types of code-switching: Inter-sentential switching (or extra-sentential switching) – this take place outside the sentence or the clause level (that is at sentence or clause boundaries); intra-sentential switching - occurs within a sentence or a clause; tag switching – the switching of either a tag phrase or a word, or both from language-B to language-A; and intra-word switching – takes place within a word, itself, like at a morpheme boundary. The main types are the extra-sentential code-switching and the intra-sentential code-switching and are discussed here below. Extra-sentential code-switching: This code-switching involves attaching a tag from one language to an utterance entirely in the other language. The tongue change is done at sentence borders. This is seen most frequently between fluent bilingual speakers. Inter-sentential language switching is also referred to as mechanical switching or code mixing. It takes place unconsciously, and fills in unknown or unavailable terms in one language. The speaker may switch from sentence to sentence or from clause to clause within the same sentence, thus leaving language choice open (Winford, 2005 p. 7). Intra-sentential switching: This refers to momentary switches which do not really change the language of the interaction. It produces utterances which have most of their lexicon as well as morpho-syntactic apparatus from one language, referred to as the matrix language (ML), with insertion of single words or phrases from the other language, referred to as the embedded language (EL). This type of mixture produces three types of constituents made up of materials from both languages, EL ‘islands’ or phrases incorporated from the EL, and ML ‘islands,’ that is, phrases entirely in the ML. Code mixing Code mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a co-operative activity where the participants, so as to infer what is intended, ought to reconcile what they hear with what they understand (Ayeomoni, 2006 p. 5). Code-mixing is a common phenomenon in societies in which two or more languages are used. Studies of code-mixing enhance our understanding of the nature, processes and constraints of language (Myers-Scotton, 1993 p. 10), and of the relationship between language use and individual values, communicative strategies, language attitudes and functions within particular socio-cultural contexts (Myers-Scotton, 1993 p. 10). Linguistic borrowing Linguistic borrowing is the aspect of taking words from one language and using them as vocabulary in another language. These words are referred to as loanwords. Here, any linguistic material – sounds, phonological rules, grammatical morphemes, syntactic patterns, semantic associations, or discourse strategies – can be borrowed or can be taken over from a foreign language so that it becomes part of the borrowing language (Campbell, 2004 p. 8). Code-switching in a Class setting In a class setting, there are various factors for switching codes that will be investigated to verify their credibility. The surrounding circumstances is one of the factors that previous research have noticed in which switching code occurs, whether the coding is voluntary or spontaneous, whether the student is comfortable or not comfortable. Another factor could be that the student does not know the English word. When the class becomes boring, code switching can make it more interesting. There is also need for research to ascertain whether it is true that most foreign students switch code to maintain privacy. It could be true that most students in the classroom switch code to conceal from others the issue they are discussing with home state associates. Ease of expression could be another reason for code-switching. It is always easier for female scholars who are studying English as their subsequent language to switch code and speak in their native language than speaking in English. This is done to avoid misunderstanding when they lack the English word. The learner utilizes the indigenous corresponding of a certain lexical item and thus code switches to her indigenous language. This procedure can be linked with the shortage in linguistic capability in talking the newer target tongue. In this manner correspondence seeking aspect gives the learner the chance to keep on communicating by bridging the breaches emanating from alien tongue ineffectiveness. The lack of fluency in target language results in code-switching situations so as to prevent gaps in communication. Adding emphasis is another factor that results in students’ code-switching and thus needs to be investigated as it is very significant in linguistic study. The message in the target tongue is reiterated by the learner in his or her indigenous tongue through which the scholar attempts to give the significance by employing reiteration method. Speakers of similar as well as different Arabic dialects use code-switching and code mixing as a framework to enhance communication and to accommodate each other in informal conversations and discussions. The switch to English is like a continuum that ranges from using partial to complete lexical items, phrases or complete utterances in English. This switch also undergoes the Arabic inflection paradigm either for nouns, adjectives or verbs. Grosjean (1982: 148-9-155) has noted that the motivations behind the different speakers’ frequent use of code-switching and code mixing especially to English may be due to two reasons: first, code-switching satisfies momentary linguistic need and also is a very useful communication resource since the speakers’ main concern is to communicate a message or intent which the other person will understand whether they use one language or two languages. Second, code-switching can as well be used for many other reasons such as quoting what someone has said (and thus emphasizing one’s group identity), specifying the addressee (switching to the usual language of a particular person in a group will show that one is addressing that person), qualifying what has been said, or talking about past events (Elsaadany, 2009 p. 21). Code-switching as a site for socio-cultural conflict (Gulf Pidgin Arabic) Cross-cultural code-switching is the act of decisively adjusting one’s behavior when in contact with an alien situation so as to have room for various cultural models for suitable behavior. Gulf Pidgin is used in slightly varying forms along the eastern seaboard of the Arabian Gulf, from Kuwait to Oman, and also inland in Saudi Arabia. Gulf Pidgin is used mainly in interaction between native Arabic speakers in the Gulf and immigrant workers from the Indian subcontinent in low-level discourse. The continuation of Gulf Pidgin in speech and in writing, and in Saudi Arabia And UAE, the dominance of English in the commercial and financial sectors, have been seen as a threat to the position and role of Arabic in these countries. Currently, Arabic is under attack as it is in grave danger of being overrun by other languages on its home ground. The introduction of foreign child-minders as well as other categories of domestic staff who speak Gulf Pidgin is held accountable for the failure of several Gulf children to speak Arabic fluently. This situation in home has been continued in the pre-school nurseries. A recent survey of several private nurseries in the UAE showed that out of 515 teachers in these nurseries only 95 were Arabic speakers. This has led to many of the children learning a second language (English) and since many of them find it difficult to use English fluently, they end up switching codes. It is found that most of these children mix Arabic and English so as to avoid gaps in communication (Escamilla, 2007 p. 7). Furthermore, the onset of colonization in the Arabic-speaking countries gave rise to modes of linguistic behavior reflecting the asymmetrical power relations between the West and the Arabs. Arabic-French code-switching is one of such form of linguistic behavior with a distinct political flavor. Nevertheless, the subordination of Arabic to English in commerce, in the financial markets and in school education in the UAE seems to be more immediately related to the socio-political culture of the place than to any modalities in its political practice. These two types of linguistic behavior are instructive sine they show us of the importance of preventing artificially demarcating the political from the socio-cultural in conceptualizing linguistic conflicts. Therefore, while the onset of code-switching in Arabic women may have been politically induced by the colonial experience, its continuation in post independence Arabic-speaking countries appears to be more socially driven (Molinsky, 2007 p. 10). Women’s use of multi-lingualism: Women and code-switching Some researchers like Fadil al-Jamali (1996 p. 9) have indicated that code-switching among Saudi Arabian women is a form of cultural subordination to the colonizers. Other researchers like al-Dhwadi posit a strong social dimension to this style of speaking in female speech. He sees it as a reflection of the concern with social prestige and status that is traditionally judged to be stronger in women than men in the socio-linguistic literature. Through mixing elements of the highly regarded foreign language with the colloquial, females are said to enhance the social value of their speech and therefore, their own standing in society. Furthermore, he considers code-switching to be a form of social liberation by women, in that it permits them to express non-conformity to the native style of speaking with its male-dominated ethos (Fadil al-Jamali, 1996 p. 9). Moreover, code-switching is said to permit Arabian women to attribute to themselves symbolically some of the social attributes that are linked with more liberated French women. Thus we ask ourselves, why do female mainly use code-switching? The main reason as to why Saudi female code switch by inserting English words in their statement is to have more prestige and status from their male counterparts. Inserting English words in Arabic sentences makes them feel of high class. Meyers-Scotton (1993; p. 17) stated that while expressing cultural subordination for both male and female speakers on the political front, code-switching can be taken to represent a form of liberation for female speakers on the social front. It enables women to escape in symbolic terms from their subordination to patriarchy. Thus true cultural liberation in Saudi would therefore liberate women socially in a way that eliminates the need to resort to code-switching as a means of acquiring symbolic power in the struggle against patriarchy. Linguistics have noted that code-switching is a linguistically self-sufficient style of speech and that code switchers master the languages they mix and are perfectly competent in them (Gumperz 1982, Grosjean 1982). While as monolingual, and mainly the illiterate, Arabian women use oral genres as oral creative strategies of self-expression, multilingual women on the other hand, either literate or illiterate, use code-switching for the same purpose. Code-switching is normally oriented towards an in-group, and is used only with bilingual and bi-dialectal participants. Grosjean (1982; p. 25) noted that code-switching is a context-dependent style of speech which does not imply a deficient mastery of the two languages involved, but on the contrary, a competent use of two linguistic codes. Studies have shown that code-switching requires competence not only in two linguistic codes, but also in appropriately manipulating the two codes according to contexts of language use (Grosjean 1982, Gumperz 1976, Meyers-Scotton 1993). Both men and women use code-switching in their daily conversation in Saudi, but code-switching is more linked with women than with men. Arabians believe and claim that women in Saudi use English more than men do. This statement tries to imply that urban women of any social class are more likely to speak English and engage in code-switching involving English than men from the same social background. According to Gumperz (1976; p. 58), it is women who mainly trigger the use of code-switching among men since men use code-switching to impress women. The main reason as to why women use code-switching is a search for some kind of prestige. In urban areas, little girls are frequently encouraged to use English or Spanish than little boys. This practice is carried on to adolescence where female teenagers use English more than male teenagers. The practice of code-switching is later encouraged by husbands, who often lay responsibility of speaking English to children or their wives. In urban setting, code-switching is a female type of communicative style. Saudi adult women use code-switching as a means of controlling conversation and keeping the floor for the necessary time without being interrupted. The use of code-switching by women in mixed groups is a means of self-empowerment. Most men are put off by this way of communication and prefer to step back or remain silent. Women use this type of communication to score personal gains in daily conversations. They are aware the French, Spanish or English is prestigious in the Saudi society, and since they are not given the chance to use second languages at the higher levels of decision-making, they overuse it in conversation and hence succeed in obtaining and maintaining attention. Motivations of code-switching in social networks/ media Apart from the various factors, for code-switching, that have been discussed in various sections of this paper, code-switching can be motivated in social networks like face-book and twitter by various syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, psychological, and social factors. Myers-Scotton (2005; p. 56) argues that embedded elements are selected since they convey meanings or connotations that are better understood by EL elements than those of the ML. She suggests five inter-related factors motivating code-switching. The first factor is that some concepts or objects may be absent from the Matrix Language lexicon. Such elements may enter the Ml and become part of its lexicon very fast. The second factor is that the embedded element is a better candidate for a certain register, i.e. it seems more compatible with a certain topic or context. The third factor is that the embedded element narrows down the meaning of an ML element and specifies it in a way that suits the speaker’s intentions. The fourth factor is that the embedded element may have a connotation that is not conveyed by the ML element. Finally, the embedded element may attract the listener’s attention or focus (Rezaeian, 2009; p. 39). There is need to look at why and how people select which language to use when interacting casually or in social networks like twitter and face-book because of their diverse multilingual backgrounds. Gumperz (1982:61) indicates that a narrator have a tendency to select language reasonably swiftly and mechanically without being conscious of the determiners of language preference. One of the main reasons for code-switching is that code-switching serves as a form of youth identity. Many females in favor of code-switching confess that this language is their mode of living. In such instances code-switching is used as ‘unmarked code’ in language as indicated by Myers-Scotton (1993; p. 64). The use of this variety can be termed as a ‘sociolinguistic reality’ in Saudi. Code-switching serves the role of a daily communication among peers. Code-switching serves as conversation tool amongst peers, it is considered as ‘cool’, and furthermore it denotes a ‘we-code’. The ‘we-code’ has become the safe and sound code of speech to create group unity and its acts as an indicator of social identity (Myers-Scotton 1993; p. 65). It is not only used as a speech of mingling but it has also turned out to be by expansion the safe and sound language during group debate in the classrooms as well as in several types of social networks. Some youths agree that code-switching is triggered by the need for social solidarity even in social media. In social networks, most of code switches are motivated by the fact that peers need a special ‘we-code’ to maintain social distance from their other friends who are non-Arabic. For them, words switch illustrates the ‘otherness’ which from time to time brings about the ‘we’ and ‘they’ codes. The application of pidgin generates communal links and offers a form of social distinctiveness. It is the speech that scholars together with other female Saudis best articulate and practice feelings as noted by Grosjean (1982; p. 53). A number of people are of the same opinion that the switches act as an ‘ice breaking’ plan, particularly as they become familiar with their team members, this is consequently used to generate permanent social links for prospect group-tasks. The Saudi females code switch for conversation supervision reason too. These switches play the role of conflict management plan during intense negotiations. Furthermore, the Saudi females and students have a tendency of avoiding misinterpretation during negotiations by employing unmarked code, which is generally English. The successive use of the unmarked code following a discrepancy acts as a repair approach. It can as well indicate an end of a quarrel. Code-switching has been employed to seal the breach during the debate and presentations. The selection of these switches may perhaps be seen as a device by the learners to evade gaps in conversation. Furthermore, switches may take place due to lack of facility in the English speech, a process that is expressed as floor-holding by Skiba (2007; p. 39). The use of code-switching in social networks could be a sign of shortage in learning a language, even though it can as well be well thought-out to be a helpful approach in social relations, (Skiba 2007; p. 39, Myers-Scotton 1993; p. 61). Youths confess that occasionally they code switch because of failure to converse. Code-switching in such instances acts as a link to ensure the continuity in communication or presentation which may result due to ineffectiveness. Research problem We have found out that one of the main reasons as to why bilinguals code switch is that they do it to compensate for prestige and status among their counterparts. The argument comes in that these bi-linguals switch code because they feel that the English language is much easier or because they lack a specific Arabic words to represent what they want too say. Most of Arabic-English bilinguals point out their lack of formal knowledge (Grosjean, 1982; p. 54). However there are several weak points in these allegations and further research is needed to settle this down. One main limitation of this observation is that it does not permit for the likelihood that code-switching is due to failure to retrieve the correct word. This limitation to recall is suggestive of the classic tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) occurrence, in which people are at times not in position to recall information that they know. A subsequent predicament with this point of view is that it cannot give explanation for the ruling that code-switching is ruled by a grammatical structure. English and Spanish vary in relation to how adjectives are used, for example. In English, the adjectives precedes the nouns while in Spanish, the adjectives are preceded by nouns. A third limitation relating to this theory is that the concept of language aptitude is not clearly defined. Do reading and inscription take preference over verbal language? The majority of tongue aptitude examinations regard written language as the influential variable. However it is not clear whether reading and writing language skills should take precedence over spoken language. This dependence on reading and writing is challenging since most bilinguals receive their formal education in one language even though most of their personal interactions happens in the other language. Thus we find out that the disparity is not due to lack of knowledge in that language but due to a differential in usage. Therefore, most of Saudi females code switch so as to have more prestige and because English language offers easier words to substitute Arabic difficult words. This is why the Saudis insert English words in Arabic sentences. Lastly, the idea that people code switch as a tactic so as to be better understood is another credible option. A number of thoughts are better conversed in one language than another (Heredia, & Altarriba, 2001; p. 69). Thus in the research, we will be trying to answer various questions like: 1. What are the socio-cultural factors behind CM and CS used among female Arab speakers of different/same varieties? To what extent do CM and CS in Arabic abide by the so-called universal constraints on CM and CS? Here we will be trying to answer the question: Why do female University Saudi students code-switch between English and Arabic when they could just use Arabic in their interactions? The probable reason could be that they do it for prestige and status or else the English language is easier to use where they cannot get suitable Arabic word. Works cited: Ayeomoni, M. (2006). “Code-switching and code-mixing: Style of language use in childhood in Yoruba speech community”. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 15 (1), 90-99. Bista K. (2010). “Factors of Code-switching among Bilingual English Students in the University Classroom”: A Survey. “Center for Excellence in Education Arkansas State University, Arkansas”. “English for Specific Purposes World”, Issue 29 Vol. 9. Retrieved March 30, 2011 from http://www.esp-world.info/Articles_29/Factors.pdf Campbell L., (2004). 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