How Has Sports Shaped Values, Gender, and Identity in Twentieth-Century Australia - Assignment Example

Running Head: Australian Studies Your name Course name Professors’ name Date 1. 2. How has sport shaped values, gender and identity in twentieth century Australia? Sport in Australia is considered a separate occupation that ought to be pursued independently. Most people have a perception that sport is an activity which a person participates in with an intention of escaping uncertainties in life. This is contrary to the fact that sport is an avenue for safeguarding attitudes, relationships and ideologies where other parts of culture have changed.1 The people of Australia have been able to learn conservatism, not from social institutions but by involving themselves in sports. This is a clear demonstration of how sport has shaped values and identity in Australia. To demonstrate how sports has been used to learn conservatism, it is important analyze how women took such a long time before gaining their stand in Australian sports world. It was not until 1980s that Surf Lifesaving Clubs practiced chauvinistic attitudes towards women.2 Other institutions at that time had accepted women. In rugby league and Australian football, women in the cheering squad were dressed in provocative costume with an intention of urging the gladiators to greater heights. In 1986, one of the newspaper reported that New South Wales rugby league team awarded their man of the match with a prostitute. This is an utter classification of women as objects capable of satisfying men consequently cultivating aggressive stereotypes which is to the present widespread in across Australia and beyond. Sports were therefore played with intent of developing egocentric ‘manly’ behaviour. Games like golf and social tennis which had minimal exertion and high emphasis on fashion were allowed to be played by women. This considers women as a weak gender an incapable of backbreaking activities like rugby and football. Nevertheless, the fight for equal representation has been ongoing since 19th century to the present day society. The other view among Australians is that sporting is political and has consequently led to various issues surrounding Australian sporting contact with South Africa. This is evident when Kim Hughes toured South Africa when suppressed blacks were being killed in 1985. Australians hold a position that international failures is as a result of declining national values. All levels of governments are required to finance sporting, a process which began late in 19th century3. The first consequence of sport in Australia is evident when it was used to build cultural colonialism by transplanting British ideals and ideologies.4 Apart from English language and literature, some of the accepted sports were integrated into the society. Horseracing clubs, formed in 1820s after the establishment of Jockey Club was considered important and people in the colonial society were required to join them. During cub days the population was encourage to follow races in a religious manner. This aspect is evident where people in the 20th century strictly follow international premier leagues or even football and rugby competition. Usually the start of the games is marked by a brief chant of national anthem of respective countries which is actually a prayer. This is a kind of religious element which continues to shape Australian culture. The success of cricket among the Australian middle class was used to measure social progress. One of the most important factors in the game of cricket was moral codes surrounding the game. The participant in the game gained ability to order and conduct life. The imperial character of games playing was extended to golf and tennis. Women were encouraged to venture into these games since such mixed social games were ideal places to match potential marriage partners. Sailing, developed in 19th century, acted as a way to display wealth noticeably. The arguments above on sports clearly illustrate a sense of identification with imperial powers. Sporting rituals, which was classically associated with the British, were later adopted by Australians. The invention of telecommunication has enhanced sporting by enabling people to watch games live.5 Although the aforementioned games signify copying imperial model, Australian Rules football is one of their invention. Other games like speedway and dirt-track motorcycle racing have had minority following. It is important to note how Australians have continuously derived their moral lessons and codes from sports which can be linked to colonial masters. The growing devotion to American sport made Australians to accept American way of life. An example is basketball which has American rituals and languages surrounding the game. Sports have further shaped Australian values such that the country values team games instead of individual sports. This devotion to team activities was derived from imperial model and it explains why Australia is reluctant to develop world record holders in athletics. The reason behind the view on team games is that it cultivates moral values such as teamwork, loyalty, obedience, and self-sacrifice. Team games are further viewed as promoting conformity whilst individual sports encouraged independence. The “tall poppy” syndrome which is an Australia attitude towards success undermines individual prowess. Several Australian women have been subjected to tall poppy since they were believed to have achieved their success at the expense of accepted social role of wives and mothers. To further illustrate gender discrimination is the fact that women athlete’s broad shoulders and muscular limbs were a deviation from accepted ideals of femininity. 3. How successfully have Australian governments responded to indigenous issues since the 1967 referendum? Indigenous issues The arrival of the Europeans to Australia triggered a chain of reaction which drastically changed the lives of Aboriginal people. This fatal impact is evidenced by dependency on European invaders since both the land and food were gone. Annual feast and blanket distribution instituted in 1817 at Parramata symbolized dependency.6 It is vital to understand that indigenous issues revolve around the rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders who were the original inhabitants of Australian continent. At the moment, these Australian people make up about 2.7% of Australian population. Most of this people are urbanized though 2002 statistics indicate that 27 % are located in the remote settlements.7 There are several cultural, historical, and ethical issues facing the Aboriginal community of Australia. The first one is preservation of language and culture where many aboriginal community and language disappeared following genocide, disease and assimilation. In an attempt to correct this, generations have campaigned for bilingual education in classrooms, greater financial allocation from government to protect the Aboriginal artwork, and embracing Aboriginal life and culture in addition to music, story telling, and subsistence living.8 The second issue is about the stole generation, a concept where Australian government removes Aboriginal children, especially “half-caste,” from their homes and later place them with white families without any consideration to child’s well being. An inquiry into the issue was made in 1995 which recommended in 1997 report that the children be brought “back home.” The inquiry discovered that 10-30% of indigenous children were excommunicated from their immediate families 1910 and 1970.9 Even though funds were allocated for counselling, studies and network, the government failed to acknowledge suffering or even compensate the families. Thirdly is about land, human remains, and burial ground which the Aborigines are constantly fighting for. This is regardless of the fact that 1993 Native Title Act gave recognition to native title rights of indigenous people to their own country. The Aborigines consider death as sacred and therefore disturbing human remain is offensive. This community has since then been fighting for Aboriginal burial rights that protects them against scientists and anthropologist who want to exhume human remains, especially the oldest Mungo man, for their own studies. Furthermore, at the time when British settled in Australia, it is perceived that diseases that came with the whites killed several Aborigines. Conversely, debate about Aboriginal resistance has been ongoing. Part of the historians hold that the settlement was peaceful while others claims that about 20,000 Aborigines were killed in massacres and clashes. This is an issue which was supposed to be addressed in the 1967 referendum but it never surfaced. Lastly in this paper is the racism factor that is well documented in Australia. Prior to 1967 referendum, Aborigines were not allowed to own property or take up full citizenship rights. As a reminder that Aboriginal issues has not faded away, the slogan “White Australia has Black History” is commonly observed on billboards and structures. This is a clear demonstration of the tension between Aboriginal community and the white Australians. Nonetheless, advocates on both sides has been working extra hard to reach a point of consensus. Governmental response to indigenous issues after 1967 referendum The 1967 Referendum question on Aborigines came to limelight when there was growing awareness for indigenous issues in Australia and the rest of the world. This referendum was focused on two pertinent issues of altering balance of numbers in senate and the house of representative and determining sections in the constitution which discriminated against Aboriginal people. The result of the referendum was an overwhelming 90.77% vote for change10. This exemplifies a growing need for political change within indigenous affairs. It is believed that the referendum established a new structure of more equal law-making by way of including the Aboriginal people in general legislation similar to all other citizens. Substantial changes to acts and political institutions made before and after the 1967 referendum altered position of Aborigines in the society. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s the government made substantial moves to assimilate indigenous people e.g. all Aborigines would eventually become “white Australians.”11 The Aboriginals were to be trained and instructed in similar ways to White Australians. The aim of this policy was that Aborigines and the Torres Strait Islanders would eventually take up the roles of mainstream Australian Society away from cultural traditions. On the contrary, this trend was intended to accord the indigenous people second class citizenship. It proved difficult to assimilate Aboriginal people since racism was deeply entrenched in the system while discrimination based on complexion was wide spread.12 Racial stereotypes took control of logics while government legislation and political parties continued to deny individuals full citizenship and common human rights. In the 1970s, there was substantial change in federal government and its policies. Federal Department of Aboriginal Affairs was created in 1974 with a sole purpose of improving the lives of Aboriginal people.13 Some Aborigines started attending post-secondary education and professional vocations which then provided an opportunity to improve economic status. Under the new administration of 1980, changes took an accelerated pace with many indigenous policy initiatives being launched. In this case, education, employment health and also administrative issues for Aboriginal people were reconsidered. The other significant development since 1967 referendum captured improvement of Australian corporation laws which was formulated through 1970s.14 This culminated to the production of Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act that was intended to enable Aboriginal people form legally constituted organizations. Although the years of administering the act proved dull, subsequent years saw formation of several organizations both at the regional and local levels. These community based organizations are now widespread in Indigenous communities. Overtime, community based responses to needs of indigenous people are mostly government agencies, departments, legislation, and funding. As an illustration of cooperation between the community and government, many community based organizations form their objectives while responding to government agencies. In 2007, Emergency response to little children was announced by the government with an intention of protecting children and further improving communities. Some of these response measures include: alcohol restriction on Aboriginal land, welfare reform to direct income support and assist families obtain basic necessities, introduce health checks, improve housing, and other general life improvement measures. Having discussed government successes that took centre-stage after the 1967 referendum, it is prudent to address elements that were not realised after the referendum. These are addressed in subsequent paragraphs under subheading what the referendum did not achieve. What the referendum did not achieve The question about the place and role of Aboriginal people in national consciousness is not only philosophical and psychological but expands to differences in resources and legal redress. The “special laws” for the Aboriginals and the straight Islanders have offered less protection than anticipated. Forty years after the referendum, inequality is still rampant in the system with Aboriginal communities living under deplorable conditions.15 The question that lingers in the minds of educators is: why the constitutional change and resource allocation provided since 1967 failed to bring equality to indigenous people? This is answered by the fact that the constitution was framed within prejudices stretching from white racial discrimination to subordination of women.16 The 1967 referendum failed to accord Aboriginal people the right to vote but instead enabled indigenous people to participate in census and gave the federal government the ability to formulate laws in relation to indigenous people. The longing for social justice that propelled passing of the referendum in 1967 did not yield returns since federal government failed to create necessary mechanisms. Furthermore, the added federal power has not been utilized to benefit indigenous people but employed as a barrier to carryout policy-making. Bibliography Attwood, B. & Markus, A. (2007). The 1967 Referendum: race, power and the Australian Constitution. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Historical Population Statistics 2008, Cat. no. 3105.0.65.001, Canberra, 2008, AusStats http://www.abs.gov.au. Accessed February 23, 2011. Behrendt, L (2000), The 1967 Referendum: 40 Years on, University of New. Sydney: South Wales Press. Broome, R. (2002). Aboriginal Australians: black response to white dominance, 1788- 1980. Sydney, Boston : Allen & Unwin. Gardiner-Garden, J. (2007). The Origin of Commonwealth Involvement in Indigenous Affairs and the 1967 Referendum, Background Paper 11 1996-1997 prepared for the Department of the Parliamentary Library, c2007., online text. Hirst, J. (2000). The Sentimental Nation. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Huggins, J. 2007. ‘The 1967 Referendum: four decades later,” Sydney papers, 19(3) p 4-9. Megalogenis, G. (2006). The Longest Decade. Carlton North, Scribe Publications. Stoddart, B. (1988). The hidden influence of sport. In V. Burgmann., & J. Lee (Ed.), Constructing a culture: A people's history of Australia since 1788 (pp. 124- 135). Ringwood, Vic: McPhee Gribble/Penguin Books. Taffe. S. (2005). Black and white together: FCAATSI: the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, 1958-1973. St Lucia: University of Queensland Press. Read More