Harsh Parenting during Adolescence - Literature review Example

Harsh Parenting during Adolescence Submitted by Submitted to {Your Introduction Adolescence is a transition within human development that affects mental and physical growth. Typically adolescence occurs between puberty and the legal age of adulthood but it is often described as starting and ending with teenage. (Abbassi) A human being changes significantly during adolescence especially in reference to emotional, attitudinal, cognitive and physical perspectives. These changes can be either positive or negative depending on how the individual chooses to react to social constraints. More often than not these social constraints are enforced and reinforced by parents. (Choudhury, Blakemore and Charman) A variety of reasons are prescribed for parental control including (but not limited to) the rebellious attitude of teenagers, the parent’s desire to make the individual more conforming to their ideals and ideologies and the need to make the individual more compliant to social norms and values. These objectives are met by parents in a variety of ways. The relationship between teenagers and parents is generally a rocky one. In order to exert their influence, parents may resort to physical and emotional coercion. (Kelley) Such parental behaviour is seen to affect adolescent growth and their adult behaviour negatively. Most adolescents with coercive parents are known to develop aggressive symptoms later in life. This aggression may be emotional or physical and may continue throughout an adult’s life unabated. (Pedersen) Though the effects of parental control on adolescent behaviour are well documented but the immediate outcomes have been historically overlooked. Parents exerting themselves on children encourage the growth of individuals who are seeking chances to overthrow the established regime of parental control. The results are often disastrous such as school shootouts such as the Columbine massacre. Moreover, teenagers may resort to joining gangs or resort to drug use in order to exert their independence. It remains notable here that all forms of parental control result in deviant social behaviour. Therefore it can be hypothesised that excessive parental control during adolescence can lead to an increase in deviant behaviour in society. This text attempts to analyse such a relationship through secondary research. Literature Review Numerous studies have been conducted in order to clarify the connection between parental exertion and resulting adolescent behaviour. Various perspectives and aspects have been covered through these studies. This text was prepared by reviewing a few instrumental studies and their results which are discussed below. The distinction between physiological control and behavioural control for human beings has long been established firmly. (Baumrind) Baumrind’s study was conducted over a fourteen weeks period where he observed three different groups of children. The behaviour of each group was markedly different. One group was composed of energetic and friendly children while another group was composed of conflicted children who were irritable. The last group was composed of impulsive and aggressive children. The parents of these children were interviewed to discern the distinct patterns of parenting. There is an overwhelming tendency to combine these two aspects of human control and to study their effects together. Such an approach is hardly considered feasible as it tends to coalesce related aspects so that they are not distinctly recognisable anymore. For example the psychological effects of beatings on a child who is being cajoled psychologically as well cannot be distinctly related. The typological approach developed by Baumrind is highly helpful in this regard as it delineates categorical distinctions to psychologically and behaviourally controlling parents. For example, authoritative parents are represented as being warm and accepting. Such parents tend to establish strict behavioural guidelines but promote psychological independence. On the other hand, authoritarian parents tend to be highly demanding and promote little psychological autonomy. They prefer that the teen depends on them for decision making. (Baumrind, Rearing competent children) There is however a problem with Baumrind’s approach. The various issues that come together to create distinct parents types are not clearly distinguished in Baumrind’s model or in models subsequently based on it. (Darling and Steinberg) Another methodology of thinking on this issue regards psychological parental control as negatively affecting the development of an autonomous character as well as impeding the growth of direction setting of an individual. Similarly, behavioural parental control is seen as a positive socialising function by giving youth the required guidance and support. These differing approaches and their outcomes became the object of research that concluded that the kinds of personalities garnered under each approach differed significantly from each other. These studies were aimed at analysing the effects of parental control on the outcomes of academic success as well as psychological maturity. The personalities and the influences exerted were distinctly studied for psychological and behavioural control but the outcomes were tested as listed above only. (Steinberg, Elmen and Mounts) This study was conducted in a sample of 120 ten to sixteen year olds to test the hypothesis that authoritative parenting facilitates school success rather than accompanying it. This study clearly demonstrated that adolescents who were treated warmly, firmly yet democratically tended to perform better in school. Behavioural regulation is another approach that is utilised to explain the outcomes of parental behaviour on children especially excessive parental control. The distinction between psychological and behavioural control is available, if not more apparent. (Barber, Olsen and Shagle) This study was based on 473 fifth, eighth and tenth graders who were both males and females from a suburb in the South. Analyses were conducted by utilising youth reported data and were validated by utilising a sub sample of 227 different mother and youth pairs. Behavioural regulation is seen as the supervision, management and regulation of teenage behaviour. Monitoring is considered key to this approach. (Patterson, Reid and Dishion) The study undertaken to prove this point consisted of 998 adolescents as well as their families who belonged to the sixth grade from three different model schools within an ethincally diverse metropolitan based community from the North Western regions in the United States. Regulation and monitoring are considered to be most intense in the mid of childhood as well as in the adolescent years. Monitoring was defined in this study as the parent’s overall awareness and subsequent supervision of children behaviours, companions, activities and whereabouts. (Brown, Mounts and Lamborn) This approach to parental control can be seen to be more pervasive than any other because parents are used to monitoring children effectively throughout their early years. This practice continues unabated throughout the adolescent years as the teenager is claiming more independence while the parental approach of control continues unabated. Certain other studies have analysed the effects of parental regulation separately. These studies have focused on one specific aspect of parental control be it behavioural, psychological or monitoring based. Psychological control can be seen as the use of any methods that interfere or inhibit with the adolescent teenager’s attempts at independence and choosing a direction. This forces the child to remain emotionally dependant on the parent figure. The greatest struggle is witnessed in early adolescence as the teenager is viciously struggling for deregulation. (Steinberg) Steinberg’s study consisted of analysing 81 individuals aged between 14 and 22 years of age from four distinct ethnic groups. These were European American, Korean American, Mexican Armenian and Armenian American groups. The investigator reported the actions of these individuals on the basis of self assertion, compliance and negotiation skills. The study conclusively proved that adolescents are in the process of determining their own fates but parents can effectively interfere with these processes. It is recommended by various studies to provide the emerging adolescent with enough “breathing space” to avoid familial troubles. The space accorded to the adolescent is important in providing them a sense of independence. This promotes a certain image of personal identity. However, the promotion of a personal identity does not indicate that the teenager will begin to disassociate. Instead if the teenager is provided the right kind of space and direction, the individual will grow up with a strong sense of self while maintaining strong personal bonds to parents and family. It is pertinent to point out here that parents may tend to influence the psychological behaviour of adolescents through methods such as guilt induction, emotional blackmailing, love withdrawal etc. However there is empirical evidence to support the contention that such parental control will ultimately rear an individual who is strictly dependant on parents for direction. Such actions on the part of parents tend to affect the child’s psychological autonomy and hence the child’s psychological maturities over the longer run. (Bates, Pettit and Dodge) This study focused primarily on using child temperaments and parental controls as predictors of behavioural outcomes through investigation in two longitudinal samples. Sample one used the restrictive control influences during infancy and toddlerhood as well as ratings of externalising influences in ages between seven and ten years. Sample two consisted of ratings of infancy and toddlerhood with restrictive controls at an age of five years. Moreover, externalising influences were analysed for ages between seven and eleven years of age. Both samples proved conclusively that parental control and restrictive external influences were true for both teachers and mothers. Based on the arguments presented above a few things can be clearly surmised. Parental control is distinctly separable into two major components that are psychological and behavioural control. Monitoring can also be seen as a mode of parental regulation. Moreover, adolescents are seeking independence in a bid to create a personal identity especially during the early period of adolescence. If the parents provide enough independence and direction to the adolescent then there is little doubt that the resulting individual will be well balanced and acceptable to society. What remains to be seen is why parents try their level best to exert control on the lives of adolescents. Most investigations on this aspect are based on a common assumption that parents’ tendency to exert control is characterised in both behavioural and psychological manifestations. Therefore, common reasons for exerting control produce both psychological as well as behavioural control methods in parents. The principle cause attributed to parent’s controlling attitudes is the belief that parents play an active role in socialising the child. Most parents’ ultimate goal is to breed an individual who is compliant to their ideals as well as the ideals of society at large. Parents tend to affect children’s behaviour so that children internalise the standards being presented to them. (Steinberg) These forms of parental control can be held to be “psychologically neutral” that is the parent’s behaviour is seen as a mere extension of socially prevalent practices and philosophies. Moreover, such tendencies are deemed acceptable because the adolescent is incapable of deciding on social direction on his own. Parental control can be seen as a social tool or instrument to further social conformity if the view presented above is held above everything else. (Barber and Harmon) This study was based largely on secondary sources and was based on two major tasks. The first task was to review while integrating historical conceptualizations of various parental psychological control techniques. Moreover, the various aspects of child and adolescent developments that were targeted were identified. The second task was to review as well as discuss various known child and adolescent issues that were correlated in terms of parental psychological control. Another view on the matter says that parental desire for control is not merely an extension of social conformity but rather an innate desire on the part of the parents for control. This control is directed at the adolescent in response to the parent’s very own adolescent experiences as well as other significant personal experiences. The parent’s personal developmental history plays a very large part in determining the control patterns exerted. Therefore, there is discernable difference in the kind of control exerted by parents with a strictly controlled upbringing versus parents who have had more personal independence. Exceptions may exist but they are insignificant enough to pass consideration. (Barber and Harmon) Implications Adolescent behaviour is largely responsible for cultivating a responsible citizen in the longer run. Aggressive, violent, introvert or otherwise unbalanced individuals are not sought by society for any given reason. Parental control in child rearing in general and parental control exerted during adolescence in particular is of prime importance to developing a well balanced society. Adolescence is a period when a human being is realised new methods of interaction with society and is revising his or her role in society to a major extent. Hence, the individual may change significantly during this process. Parents may try to control the direction in which the individual develops by employing psychological, behavioural and monitoring based controls. However, it is best to provide the individual with some measure of personal independence so that the individual in question can mature better. Moreover, it is pertinent to relate that if one encounters a troubled adolescent it is advisable to explore family interactions and parental development history as it plays a significant part in determining how parents control their children. Again, the promotion of psychological independence as well as the dissuasion of strict behavioural control is essential to cultivating socially responsible and positively oriented citizens in the longer run. Bibliography Abbassi, V. “Growth and normal puberty.” Pediatrics 102 (2 Pt 3) (1998): 507-511. Barber, B. K. and E. Harmon. Parental psychological control of children and adolescents. Washington D. C. : American Psychological Association Press, 2001. Barber, B. K., J. E. Olsen and S. C. Shagle. “Associations between parental psychological and behavourial control and youth internalised and externalised behaviour.” Child Development 65 (1994): 1120-1136. Bates, J. E., et al. “The interaction of temperamental resistance to control and restrictive parental discipline in the development of externalising problems.” Development Psychology 34 (1998): 982-995. Baumrind, D. “Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behaviour.” Genetic Psychology Monographs (1967): 43-88. Baumrind, D. “Rearing competent children.” Damon, W. Child development today and tomorrow. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. 349-368. Brown, B. B., et al. Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. 1993: 467-482, Child Development 64. Choudhury, S., S. J. Blakemore and T. Charman. “Social cognitive development during adolescence.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 1 (2006): 165. Darling, N. and L. Steinberg. “Parenting styles as context: An integrative model.” Psychological Bulletin 113 (1993): 487-496. Kelley, T. M. “Positive psychology and adolescent mental health: false promise or true breakthrough?” Adolescence 39 (154) (2004): 257–278. Patterson, G. R., J. Reid and T. J. Dishion. Antisocial boys. Eugene: Castilia, 1992. Pedersen, S. “Personality formation in adolescence and its impact upon the psycho-analytical treatment of adults.” International Journal of Psychoanalysis 42 (1961): 381–388. Steinberg, L. “Interdependance in the family: Autonomy, conflict and harmony in the parent adolescent relationship.” Feldman, S. S. and G. R. Elliot. At the threshold: The developing adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990. 255-276. Steinberg, L., J. D. Elmen and N. S. Mounts. “Authoritative parenting, psychological maturity and academic success among adolescents.” Child Development 60 (1989): 1424-1436. Read More