The Working Definition of a Term for a Specific Research Undertaking - Assignment Example

Discussion Questions Discussion Questions Chapter 2 Questions Question Here is how I would ranks questions (a) to (c) for clarity: (a) 5, (b) 3, (c) 4. On significance, this is how I would rank them: (a) 1, (b) 2 and (c) 3. Question (a) scores very low on significance because, by itself, enrolment for driving classes adds little value to knowledge. Like (a), (b) also adds little value to knowledge. Question (c) has the potential to add substantive value to knowledge hence the highest score on significance(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Question 2 I would define a humanistically oriented classroom as one where the teacher strives to meet the unique learning needs of each student(Huitt, 2009). The teacher would implement a humanist view to teaching and learning in some ways. First, whenever possible, allow each student to choose the activities to complete. They would also teach their students to set attainable academic goals. Finally, the teacher would allow students to participate in group work. Question 3 Terms frequently used in education are often difficult to define because there are different types of definitions. Constitutive definitions, such as those used in the dictionary, use alternative words to define a term(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). The terms can also be defined by example. An operational definition is the working definition of a term for a specific research undertaking. Usually, to develop a working definition, the researcher will modify scholarly definitions of a term to adapt it to their research setting, or assign a value to the term. Question 4 The term "excellence" may be defined operationally by quantifying excellence. Suppose a researcher investigates the relationship between class attendance and academic excellence. The researcher may define academic excellence as a mean grade of B and above. By this definition, a student who scores a mean grade of B or above is considered to have achieved academic excellence. Otherwise, the student who scores a grade lower than B is considered having not excelled in their studies. Question 5 There is some truth in the statement that clarity of definition does not always result in effective communication(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). This might be the case for some reasons. First, different cultures attach different meanings to the same term. Therefore, in the event that the person defining the term and its recipient are of different cultures, the term may convey a different to the recipient from the one intended by the sender. Even when used within the same culture, a term may fail to convey the intended meaning because it carries many meanings and the person defining it has not done due diligence to discern their intended interpretation out the several possible interpretations. Question 6 I agree that operational definitions ought to be accompanied by constitutive definitions(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). This is important because each type of definition has aits role to play. Whereas a constitutive definition gives the broad understanding of a term, its operational definition seeks to adapt it to the unique circumstances under which it is used in a given research undertaking. However, there are instances when only operational definitions will suffice. An example is when the researcher uses a local term that does not exist in the official language in which the research is conducted. Question 7 I agree that research ought not to be based on personal interests. Personal interests are likely to comprise the objectivity of the research and introduce bias(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). For instance, a researcher who investigates a problem in their home town is likely to be biased and conduct the research based on their perception of the town. However, there are exceptions. For instance, for peer-reviewed research, biases due to personal interests may be identified and eliminated. Chapter 3 Questions Question 1 Research questions (b), (c) and (f) suggest relationships. Question (b) suggests the possibility that as students abilities to read a text passage increase, so do their abilities to pronounce words correctly. Question (c) suggests a relationship between a romantic partners social attractiveness and their expectation of their partner. Question (f) infers the possibility of a relationship between a students ability to score highly in a reading test and the ability to do so in the standardized writing test. Questions (a), (d), (e) and (g), on the other hand, do not suggest relationships. Question 2 On a scale of 1 to 5, 5 being the highest score and 1 the lowest, I would rank the above questions as follows. Questions (a) and (e) would score 1: they are too simple and straight forward to pass for research questions. For instance, one only needs to look at the students’ database to know how many students there are in the sophomore class. Question (d) would score 2: it requires some investigation such interviewing lecturers in the faculty to find out their dislikes about the new curriculum. Questions (b), (c) and (f) would score 5: these are real research questions that call for in-depth investigation(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Question 3 A researcher may choose to state a directional hypothesis because it possesses certain clear advantages over non-directional hypothesis(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). A directional hypothesis indicates that the review of the literature was been thoroughly done. A directional hypothesis provides the researcher and the reader with a theoretical frame of reference that guides the study. It also suggests that the researcher has taken a position that drives them to undertake thorough data collection and analysis. However, the researcher may also opt for a non-directional hypothesis because it is more objective. Question 4 Researchers should not study control variables. A control variable, also called a covariate, is an extraneous variable that the researcher does not intend to study(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Rather, the researcher controls the variable. There are several independent variables that could affect a dependent variable; the researcher cannot possibly study them all in a study. Extraneous variables are those variables that are beyond the scope of the research, but which the researcher believes could affect the variables being studied; the researcher must take the influence of these variables into account. Question 5 The accuracy with which the researcher defines a variable significantly influences their ability to measure it(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). However, not all variables may be defined accurately. An example is extraneous variables: these are variables that are beyond the scope of an investigation, but are likely to influence the variables being studied. In such a case, vague as the variables may be, the researcher still needs to find ways of keeping them under control. Thus, whereas a researcher may not measure a variable that is poorly defined or not defined at all, they may still control it. Question 6 I agree that commitment to a hypothesis may lead to distortion of findings(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). The distortion may happen intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional distortion may result because the researcher may feel obliged and pressured to affirm their hypothesis. An example of hypothesis that could if committed to could lead to distortion is that students who are native speakers of English perform better in the subject than non-native speaking students. It for this reason that a researcher may choose to commit to a non-directional hypothesis rather than a directional one. Question 7 An example of a study where it would be presumptuous to predict the outcome would be one that seeks to assess the performance of teachers based on student achievement. If the researcher predicted that low student achievement is the result poor teacher performance, that prediction would be presumptuous. First, as already noted, there exists considerable difficulty in defining such commonly used terms as student achievement. Secondly, there are several other factors, besides teacher performance, which would affect the achievement of the student. One factor could be the level of intelligence of the learner. Chapter 5 Questions Question 1 It would not be prudent for a researcher to embark on planning their study without first reviewing the existing literature on their research topic. The literature review provides the theoretical basis of the research(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). For instance, where the researcher opts to state a hypothesis in addition to the research questions, that hypothesis must emanate from the review of literature. Also, it is through the review of the literature that the researcher identifies existing gaps in the knowledge of the subject. Otherwise, the researcher is likely to duplicate knowledge. Question 2 The fact that many published articles reporting research findings refer only to a few related studies(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009)is unjustified. The main reason this scenario exists, I believe, is that many researchers do not spend adequate time reviewing relevant existing literature. Many, it appears, are in a hurry to design and carry out their research, paying little attention to similar previous work. Also, there could be difficulties in accessing existing articles. While many articles are available on the Internet, most require one to either subscribe or buy; a researcher may not have the needed resources. Question 3 Whereas both expert opinions and related articles are important in the literature review(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009), I believe related articles are more important. Expert opinion is not peer-reviewed and is, therefore, prone to bias. By contrast, journal articles are peer-reviewed and, as a result, less prone to bias. Even so, the researcher must be careful which articles they refer to. In the past, peer-review has revealed academic dishonesty where data was manipulated to conform to the stated hypothesis. Question 4 It is not a good idea to refer to books for the review of the literature. Books deal with very broad subjects. By way of contrasting, research deals with specific topics. Thus, by virtue, of their limited scope, research articles treat their topics in greater depth than books, hence their suitability for the literature review(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Moreover, by virtue of its small size, it is much easier and faster to locate information in a research article than a book. Thus, by using the former, the researcher saves valuable research Question 5 In reviewing literature, the researcher picks out the most relevant information(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). In an empirical article, for example, such information would include summaries of the purpose or objective of the research, findings and conclusions. The details of these sections should be left out. For instance, the researcher may not go into the details of how the sample was picked. Also, the section on the review of literature should be left out. Question 6 I would advise Professor Jones on the importance of the review of literature despite the fact that it may consume considerable time. In fact, if well done, literature review could save Professor Jones and his students much time later in their research. The literature review provides the students with the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of their research(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Once the students get the two frameworks right, the rest of the research is made easier. Moreover, it is from the areas proposed for further research in the existing literature that students get significant research ideas. Question 7 A researcher might escape literature if they were conducting a survey. For instance, a school district may want to establish the number of learners in the district with a disability. In such a case, the researchers may simply need to design, administer and analyse questionnaires. Even then, the researchers may need to review existing past records of students with a disability in the district to establish trends. The only difference is, the researchers will not be reviewing research articles. References Fraenkel, J., & Wallen, N. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Boston: McGraw Hill. Huitt, W. (2009). Humanism and open education. Valdosta: Valdosta State University. Read More