Correlation Between Cigarette Smoking and High School Achievement - Research Proposal Example

? The Correlation between Cigarette Smoking and High School Achievement Barbara Kolakowski Affiliation] Substance use and abuseamong teenagers has emerged as a major public health concern in the United States. Concerns over substance use and abuse stems from the realization of the correlation between substance abuse and poor performance. It is against this backdrop that the proposed research purposes to establish the link between cigarette smoking and academic performance among high school students. The research will establish the prevalence of cigarette smoking among high school students, factors that motivate students to smoke, impacts of smoking on performance, perception of students on cigarette smoking and measures that have been put in place to address smoking among students. This research will be based on the Psychological Theories of drug abuse. Within this theoretical framework, reinforcement and individual theories will be explored to establish that pushes students into drugs. The research will follow the exploratory design and will be based on mixed methodology. Data will be collected from students and teachers using both structured and unstructured questionnaires. Interviews will also be scheduled with key informants. The researcher believes that research findings will make invaluable contributions to the existing literature that links substance abuse to poor academic performance. Keywords: substance abuse and academic performance The Correlation between Cigarette Smoking and High School Achievement Substance use among teenagers has finally entered the unchartered territory where it is no longer possible to ignore its impacts. The increasing prevalence of teenagers abusing drugs in the United States has become a major public health issue. Subsequent addiction and loss of productivity among drug users have particularly elicited great interest in substance abuse. The importance of substance abuse in academic discourses stems from the correlation between substance abuse and academic performance. Therefore, substance use and abuse are focal issues that academic commentators must address with urgency. Peer pressure has been cited as the common motivators for teenagers to engage in drugs (Thorlindsson and Vilhjalmsson, 1991). Most teenagers feel pressured to take alcohol/drugs at social gathering in order to conform to social groups. Nevertheless, some teenagers use drugs and other substances as a means of dealing with their distress. In the same vein, other teenagers may use drugs to overcome personal limitations, such as low self-esteem or shyness (Morin et al., 2011). The first casualty of substance use and abuse is cognitive ability. Impaired cognition limits the performance capacity of substance users (Thorlindsson and Vilhjalmsson, 1991). It is against this backdrop that the proposed research purposes to establish how cigarette smoking among high school students affects their overall, academic performance. Significance of the Research Education has long been heralded as a means of social mobility. Accordingly, proponents of academic achievements link education attainment to a successful future. Nevertheless, the job market has become very competitive in the 21st century than ever before. This implies that students who fail to achieve high grades stand no chance of competing favorably in the job market. Within such a context, academic achievement tops the agenda for many discussions within government and academic circles. By studying the correlation between cigarette smoking and high school achievement, the proposed research underscores the role that education plays in personal development. The research will, firstly, establish the link between cigarette smoking and high school achievement. Secondly, the research will identify the prevalence of cigarette smoking among high school students and the factors that contribute to this prevalence. Thirdly, the research aims at establishing the effects of cigarette smoking on high school students. A presentation of these findings will form the basis upon which preventive programs will be designed. Preventive programs will be critical in addressing substance use and abuse among teenagers in general, and high school students, in particular. Consequently, the proposed research will fill existing gaps on the effects of substance use and abuse on academic performance. Research Questions The main aim of conducting this research is to find out how cigarette smoking among high school students affects their academic performance. The research will address the following questions: 1. What is the prevalence of cigarette smoking among high school students? 2. What motivates high school students to smoke cigarettes? 3. What are the perceptions among high school students with regards to cigarette smoking and academic performance? 4. How has cigarette smoking affected the academic performance of high school students? 5. What measures have school boards put in place to tackle cigarette smoking among students? In exploring these answers, the researcher will make assumptions that are twofold. Firstly, the researcher will assume that high school students are influenced by various factors to smoke cigarettes. Secondly, the researcher will assume that schools have put mechanisms in place to address substance abuse among students. Literature Review A body of literature exists, which aims at discussing the links between drug use and academic performance. However, this literature studies the correlation between substance use and academic performance from two different perspectives. On one hand, social scientists posit that substance abuse limits the ability of students to concentrate on their studies. Hence, students who are on drugs attain poor grades (Pennanen et al., 2011; Cox et al., 2007; Jeynes, 2002; Sekulic et al., 2012). On the other hand, social scientists assert that low grades and other social issues motivate students to use drugs (Page et al., 2012; Takakura, Wake and Kobayashi, 2010; Diego, Field and Sanders, 2003). Substance Use and Academic Performance Researchers have established a plausible link between substance use and poor performance in class. Influence of marijuana, cocaine and other substances limited the capacity of high school students to perform simple arithmetic and other reading assignments (Cox et al., 2007; Jeynes, 2002). Nevertheless, Sekulic et al. (2012) note a very high prevalence of substance abuse among Bosnian school children. Substance abuse was widespread among both boys and girls. Sekulic et al. observed dismal academic performance among adolescent boys and girls that were using drugs. Participation is sporting activities did not act as a protective measure against substance abuse among these Bosnian adolescents. In their 2006 study, Dhawan et al. (2010) found out that academic failure was significantly prevalent among Indian students who reported cigarette smoking or chewing tobacco. This study established that students smoking cigarettes received lower grades compared to their non-smoking counterparts. Furthermore, this cohort study established that students who had had begun chewing/smoking tobacco since 2004 were more likely to receive low grades in 2006 compared to nonsmokers. Factors Contributing to Substance Abuse among Teenagers From another perspective, the study found out that poor performance in class increased the intentions and risk for future tobacco use (Dhawan et al., 2010). Diego, Field and Sanders (2003) have identified a number of factors that increase the likelihood of substance abuse among teenagers. From their study, Diego, Field and Saunders found out that adolescents with high popularity among peers, low grades and high depression were more prone to drinking alcohol, smoking cigarette and marijuana compared to their peers. They also found out that alcohol use and cigarette smoking envisaged marijuana use, which in turn envisaged cocaine use. Researchers have also found out that personal perception regarding the popularity of smoking among elite members of the community, prevalence of smoking and disapproval of smoking by parents and peers predict smoking habits (Page et al., 2012). Page et al. found out that perceived popularity of smoking among the successful/elite members of society increases the risk of smoking among students. However, Page et al. reported that smoking risk among students reduces with disapproval from parents and peers. Sekulic et al. (2012) posit that trauma increases the risk of substance abuse. Sekulic et al. found out that substance abuse was high in Bosnia given the trauma that the country experienced in the past. Takakura, Wake and Kobayashi (2010) have identified low school satisfaction as a predictor of cigarette smoking and alcohol use. Takakura, Wake and Kobayashi found out that cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking increased with decreasing school satisfaction. Morin et al. (2011) have also identified various factors that initiate smoking among students. From their research findings, Morin et al. have found out that low grades, peer pressure and other socio-economic factors initiate smoking among students. Methodology The study will employ a mixed methods research methodology and will focus on two public high schools in Mississippi. This approach is specifically designed to gain varied insights from teachers’ and students’ experiences on the problem under study. This will enable the researcher to gather students’ and their teachers’ views on the link between substance abuse and academic performance. Additionally, the researcher will gain valuable knowledge about perceptions that teachers and students have towards substance abuse. Sampling Techniques Large scale samples will be drawn from high school students in grades 11 and 12, while small scale samples will be drawn from faculty members in the selected schools. Systematic random sampling will be used to select samples from the student population. Systematic random sampling will ensure that each member in the population has an equal chance of selection hence, minimizing selection bias. Faculty members will be selected through accidental sampling where high school teachers will be invited to take part in the research voluntarily. Research Design This research will be based on the Exploratory Research Design. An exploratory research is carried out with the aim of gaining a better understanding of a phenomenon. In practice, an exploratory research is not designed to provide final answers but rather produce hypotheses about the phenomenon. This research will explore the relationship between cigarette smoking and academic performance. Insights from this research will form the basis upon which this relationship will be hypothesized to establish the statistical significance of the link between the two phenomena. Data Collection Instruments A mixed approach will be followed in collecting primary data. Triangulation of data collection instruments will ensure that raw data is both valid and reliable. Primary data will be collected using structured and unstructured survey questionnaires. Structured questionnaires will be used to gather information from teachers and students. The use of structured questionnaires has been informed by the ease at which structured questions are administered and analyzed. However, each structured question will be followed by a contingency question to probe for more information from the respondents. Nevertheless, key informant interviews will be conducted with school heads and members of the school board. The purpose of these interviews will be to get in-depth information on the state of drug use among high school students, and how drug use is affecting students’ school performance. Through these interviews, the researcher will also be able to find out how school management is addressing drug use among students. Data Analysis Procedures Descriptive, quantitative data will be analyzed using the SPSS data analysis software. The SPSS analysis will generate frequencies, averages, measures of central tendency and standard deviations. Qualitative data will be coded within various groups, with each group representing distinct study variables. Based on these groups, narratives will be used to discuss results and draw inferences. Both quantitative and qualitative data will be presented in tables, charts and graphs. It is from these presentations that discussions will be made and inferences drawn. Conclusion Substance use and abuse among teenagers has increasingly become a major public health concern. Many studies indicate that substance use among teenagers lead to anti-social behaviors. However, not much has been said about the direct impact of substance abuse on school performance. It is on this basis that this research will attempt to establish this link. Predicted Results The researcher hypothesizes that use of cigarettes results in low grades among high school students. Furthermore, the researcher presupposes that cigarette smoking among high school students predisposes them to the risk of using other addictive drugs, such as marijuana. The general use of drugs may lead to unsocial behavior, especially indiscipline cases at school. This behavior may lead to suspension and school drop-out. Moreover, low grades may lower students’ self-esteem as drive them deeper into drug use. Discussion and Potential Implications Substance abuse impairs teenagers’ cognition, decision making capability, emotions and judgments. These effects limit the students’ ability to concentrate on their studies. Consequently, lack of concentration affects overall performance and leads to low grades. Poor performance in class may be a recipe for drop-out and increased use of addictive drugs. Substance use and abuse among high school students is a societal concern that must be addressed. The future of the nation depends on productive youths. If these young people become addicted to drugs and other substances, and fail to perform in school, the country’s future economic and social projections hangs in the balance. Findings from this research will add value to current literature, as well as provide directions for formulating education policies that will address drug use among students. Directions for Future Research Much of current literature deals with the link between low grades and substance use. Other studies have aimed at establishing the impact of socio-economic factors on academic performance. Very few studies have attempted to study the impact of substance abuse on poor performance. This research will provide a hypothesis that will guide future research on how substance abuse affects academic performance among high school students. Potential Limitations Much as this research will add to available literature and identify gaps in research, the researcher cannot overlook potential limitations. The sample of high school students that will participate in the study represents students in Mississippi. Therefore, it is not explicit whether findings from the research will generalize to other students in the state or nation as a whole. This is because schools in Mississippi have distinct characteristics from other schools across the country. Secondly, many factors contribute to academic performance. As a result, it is not clear whether poor performance among high school students is a consequence of cigarette smoking or depends on other extraneous factors. References Cox, R. G., Zhang, L., Johnson, W.D., & Bender, D.R. (2007). Academic performance and substance use: Findings from a state survey of public high school students. Journal of School Health, 77(3), 109-115. Dhavan, P., Stigler, M. H., Perry, C. L., Arora, M., & Reddy, K. S. (2010). Is tobacco use associated with academic failure among government school students in urban India? Journal of School Health, 80(11), 552-5. Diego, M. A., Field, T. M., & Sanders, C. E. (2003). Academic performance, popularity, and depression predict adolescent substance use. Adolescence, 38(149), 35-42. Jeynes, W. H., (2002). The relationship between the consumption of various drugs by adolescents and their academic achievement. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 28(1), 15-35. Morin, A. J. S., Rodriguez, D., Fallu, J. S., Maiano, C., &Janosz, M. (2011). Academic achievement and smoking initiation in adolescence: A general growth mixture analysis. Addiction, 107(4), 819-828. Page, R. M., Suwanteerangkul, J., Sloan, A., Kironde, J., & West, J. (2012). Thai adolescents’ normative beliefs of the popularity of smoking among peers, adults, the successful and elite, and parents. Social Development, 21(4), 849-866. Pennanen, M., Haykkala, A., de Vries, H., &Vartiainen, E. (2011). Longitudinal study of relations between school achievement and smoking behavior among secondary school students in Finland: Results of the ESFA study. Substance Use & Misuse, 46, 569-579. Sekulic, D., Ostojic, M., Ostojic, Z., Hajdarevic, B., &Ostojic, L. (2012). Substance abuse prevalence and its relation to scholastic achievement and sports factors: An analysis among adolescents of the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton in Bosnia Herzegovina. Biomed Central, 12(274), 1-21. Takakura, M., Wake, N., & Kobayashi, M. (2010). The contextual effect of school satisfaction on health-risk behaviors in Japanese high school students. Journal of School Health, 80(11), 544-551. Thorlindsson, T, &Vilhjalmsson, R. (1991). Factors related to cigarette smoking and alcohol use among adolescents. Adolescence, 26(102), 399-418. Appendix 1 Literature Review Table Citation Major Findings Cox, R. G., Zhang, L., Johnson, W.D., & Bender, D.R. (2007). Academic performance and substance use: Findings from a state survey of public high school students. Journal of School Health, 77(3), 109-115. 1. Low grades were more prevalent among frequent smokers compared to all other participating students. 2. Frequent smokers were about 2.5 times more likely to have low grades compared to all other students. Dhavan, P., Stigler, M. H., Perry, C. L., Arora, M., & Reddy, K. S. (2010). Is tobacco use associated with academic failure among government school students in urban India? Journal of School Health, 80(11), 552-5. Students who currently or ever used tobacco in 2004 were more likely to repeat the same grade level once or twice by 2006 as compared with those who did not report such use. Diego, M. A., Field, T. M., & Sanders, C. E. (2003). Academic performance, popularity, and depression predict adolescent substance use. Adolescence, 38(149), 35-42. 1. Adolescents with low GPAs and high-self ratings of popularity and depression more likely smoked cigarettes. 2. Adolescents with low GPAs and high self ratings of popularity and depression more likely drank alcohol. 3. Adolescents with low GPAs and high self-ratings of popularity and depression more likely smoked marijuana. Jeynes, W. H., (2002). The relationship between the consumption of various drugs by adolescents and their academic achievement. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 28(1), 15-35. There is a relationship between considerable consumption of alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, and cigarettes and academic achievement but it is not the primary cause. The primary cause is the result of many other factors like family disruption and other cultural and sociological factors. Morin, A. J. S., Rodriguez, D., Fallu, J. S., Maiano, C., &Janosz, M. (2011). Academic achievement and smoking initiation in adolescence: A general growth mixture analysis. Addiction, 107(4), 819-828. 1. Adolescents who do well in school are less likely to smoke. 2. It may be cost effective for smoking prevention to focus on the low achievers who form 35% of smoking onsets. 3. Promoting parenting skills at a young age may prevent future onsets of smoking in adolescents. Page, R. M., Suwanteerangkul, J., Sloan, A., Kironde, J., & West, J. (2012). Thai adolescents’ normative beliefs of the popularity of smoking among peers, adults, the successful and elite, and parents. Social Development, 21(4), 849-866. 1. No association between perceived prevalence of smoking with current smoking behavior or susceptibility to smoking. 2. Perceived popularity of smoking among the successful/ elite was associated with a higher risk of being a smoker. 3. Perceived disapproval by friends/ parents was associated with a lower risk of being a smoker. Pennanen, M., Haykkala, A., de Vries, H., &Vartiainen, E. (2011). Longitudinal study of relations between school achievement and smoking behavior among secondary school students in Finland: Results of the ESFA study. Substance Use & Misuse, 46, 569-579. 1. Students that performed poorly at school smoked weekly 6 times more than those who achieved the highest GPAs. 2. Deterioration of school achievement contributes to progression in smoking uptake continuum and vice versa. 3. There were no moderating effects of gender or treatment condition in the proposed models. Sekulic, D., Ostojic, M., Ostojic, Z., Hajdarevic, B., &Ostojic, L. (2012). Substance abuse prevalence and its relation to scholastic achievement and sports factors: An analysis among adolescents of the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton in Bosnia Herzegovina. Biomed Central, 12(274), 1-21. 1. In both genders substance abuse was negatively correlated with educational achievement. 2. One-third of boys and one-fourth of girls were daily smokers. Sports factors were not a protective factor against substance abuse in boys. 3. Girls with low educational achievement showed 33% as smokers and 22% practiced harmful drinking. Takakura, M., Wake, N., & Kobayashi, M. (2010). The contextual effect of school satisfaction on health-risk behaviors in Japanese high school students. Journal of School Health, 80(11), 544-551. 1. Students with lower school satisfaction were more likely to engage in health-risk behaviors than those with higher school satisfaction. 2. The odds of smoking and drinking increased with decreasing contextual-level school satisfaction. Thorlindsson, T, &Vilhjalmsson, R. (1991). Factors related to cigarette smoking and alcohol use among adolescents. Adolescence, 26(102), 399-418. 1. Use of tobacco and alcohol was related to the factors of sex, residence, hours of paid work, physical actvities, social network, educational performance and psychological distress. 2. Smoking and drinking had most predictors in common. Appendix 2 Sample Questionnaire HIGH SCHOOL SMOKING BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE As part of a graduate class research project for ETR 520 (Introduction to Research Methods in Education) I am conducting a study to understand how grades or GPA of high school students may be related to their smoking habits. Your answers to these questions are very important and will be kept strictly confidential. Please do not hesitate to contact Barbara Kolakowski at barbkolakowski@sbcglobal.net with any questions you may have regarding this survey. Thank you for your assistance. It is greatly appreciated! SECTION 1: First some questions regarding school. 1. I feel that getting good grades is important. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I feel that getting to class on time is important. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. I feelconnected to my school and cared for by the students and staff at my school. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. I feel that learning new things is important. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I feel that getting involved in student council or other school groups is important. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. How many classes have you “cut” when you should have been there in the last month? 0 classes 1 to 5 classes 6 to 10 classes 11 or more classes 7. What is your current high school GPA? 3.5 to 4.0 3.0 to 3.5 2.5 to 3.0 2.0 to 2.5 1.5 to 2.0 1.5 or under Please continue on to next page SECTION 2: Some questions about smoking. Please circle your response. 8. Have you ever been a smoker, even if you only smoked occasionally? Yes No 9. How soon after waking up do you smoke? after 1 hour after 30 to 59 minutes after 10 to 30 minutes within 5 minutes 10. When you smoke do you enjoy it? Not at all Very little A good amount Quite a lot Extremely 11. How many of your closest friends smoke cigarettes? 0 1 or 2 3 or more 12. Why do you think people your age begin to smoke? To be popular Peer pressure They think it’s cool Stress from school 13. How many cigarettes a day do you smoke? 10 cigarettes or less 11 to 20 21 to 30 31 or more Please continue on to next page 14. At what times do you tend to smoke cigarettes? Before school During the day at school After school In the evening On the weekends 15. How old were you when you first tried a cigarette, even a single puff? 7 years old or younger 8 to 10 years old 11 to 13 years old 14 to 15 years old 16 to 18 years old 16. If one of your best friends were to offer you a cigarette, would you smoke it? Yes No 17. Do any members of your family (parents, step-parents, guardians or siblings) smoke? Parents, step-parents, guardians Siblings Nobody in my family smokes Please continue on to the next page SECTION 3: Some final questions about you. 18. How old are you? 13 to 14 years old 15 years old 16 years old 17 years old 18 years old or more 19. What is your gender? Male Female 20. What is your race or ethnic group? American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian Black or African American Hispanic or Latino Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander White Caucasian Other Don’t know / unsure 21. How well off is your current family / household? We struggle to make ends meet We live comfortably We are very well off Don’t know / unsure 22. In what county do you live? Cook County Lake County DuPage County McHenry County Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey questionnaire. Your responses will remain completely confidential. Your responses are a valuable part of this study. Thank you again for your assistance and have a nice day! Read More