The Importance and Benefits of Using Educational Design in Education - Research Paper Example

?Running Head: INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Evaluating instructional design Evaluating instructional design Introduction Instructional design comes from the idea that instruction can be programmed with the effect of creating a more efficient system in which the student is attracted to the act of learning. The basis for instructional design is in behavioral psychology, where learning is defined through paradigms in which expected behaviors are part of how the design of the instruction is put into place. In the video “Merrill on Instructional Design”, the topic of instructional design is discussed. The three basic outlines for how to approach instruction are defined and given meaning in relationship with instruction. Fifteen principles are involved in the discussion of instructional design, and from these fifteen principles it is intended that seven will be further explored through examples of videos in which they have been violated. In learning how to appropriately use a theory it is often beneficial to see how it has been erroneously applied, or not followed. In looking at the principles of instructional design, it is valuable to see how others have failed to follow the ideas put forth and the effect that these missed steps have on the information that is intended. Merrill on Instructional Design M. David Merrill (2008) has been in the instructional design business for about 40 years. His opinion is that the internet has allowed for easy access to the public, but has created a glut of information dumps through which true instruction is ineffective. He assesses the glut of work as representative of an inability to create effective instruction at a broad level, with even professional organizations falling short of those principles that have been determined as necessary to create effective instruction. Merrill (2008) outlines three important aspects of designing learning. The first is the need to show people what is being instructed rather than just tell. Giving people an opportunity to practice what has been learned is more than just multiple choice questions. Getting them involved in more complex tasks is required for good learning. The final aspect of educating that is important for learning is motivation. Real learning comes when a student is able to do something that they were not able to accomplish before the education event, with a real world application being the reward so that they can do what they could not do before the instruction. Being able to do something new is the greatest motivational factor available to the instructor, according to Merrill. He states that through demonstration, activation of practical application, then through the motivation of learning how to do something, the basics have been covered to improve instruction. Broken down to simple, one word explanations, a teacher must engage the student by showing, practicing, and doing. The emphasis on real world application seems to have a strong focus for learning practices, where abstract concepts are far more difficult to achieve than concepts that are applicable in the real world. Clark and Mayer (2011) break this idea down into farther into three additional types of teaching, the first being show and tell which is receptive, show and do which is directive, and teaching by problem solving which is guided discovery. However, these three concepts are based upon the idea that the student is motivated towards learning because they will be able to do something after the conclusion of the learning experience. The last two of these types of teaching are particularly directed towards creating a system in which the student is given a form of a doable result from the instruction. Overview of 15 Principles of Instructional Design The discussion of education in relationship to instructional design is based upon the use of principles that guide instruction towards affecting the student to engage in learning. The first principle is alignment between activities and outcomes. In order to create effective learning, it is important to have an alignment between what is done and what is expected of the outcome. This is achieved through developing “progressive expertise through experiential strategies…through reflective activities designed to promote understanding and knowledge production” (Wang, 2010, p. 110). The multimedia principle is based on the idea that people will learn more efficiently when words are placed in relationship with imagery that reinforces what is being taught. This is in association with the contiguity principle in which it has been determined that people will learn when words and images are placed close to one another in order to create an association which will be more memorable than if they are separated from one another. According to the rationale for the modality principal, it is best not to have both a running text and a printing of that text at the bottom of images. In an instructional video, if there are two streams of content going through the visual processing, less will be learned. Further than that, the redundancy principle suggests that to have text running along with a narration is counterproductive to effective learning as the viewer is processing images, the narration, and the written texts all at the same time (Silber, Foshay, and Wellesley, 2009). Although the above may seem in conflict, in reality it means to place words or phrases near imagery that can be easily associated, but to not run a narration across images along with the spoken word. Speaking about a topic and providing images is the strongest way in which to communicate concepts, while applying meaningful words to central images as a way to reinforce what has been taught can help to bolster the experience. Additionally the coherence principle provides for the idea that while interesting details may seem like a good way to keep the attention of a group, the truth is that a concise instruction will create higher rates of retention than an embellished lesson. Although concise instruction is best, the instruction still needs to be personalized for the personalization principle. A casual, conversational style is the best way in which to deliver instruction (Silber, Foshay, and Wellesley, 2009). According to the segmenting and pre-training principle, people will learn more easily when different aspects of a lesson are grouped together into segments that can be related to one another and when pre-training on a topic creates a better overall understanding of what will be learned. By introducing a topic through pre-training what the segments will contain, less processing will need to be done during the lesson (Clark & Mayer, 2011). Leveraging examples allows for the student to learn how to solve problems rather than teaching the way towards the answer of one problem. An example of how to think about this principle would be teaching a student how to solve a single math problem in contrast to teaching a student the skills with which to solve the problem (Clark & Lyons, 2011). Practice exercises create a system of usable skills rather than the ability to answer questions about those skills. In creating applications through which practice in real world situations can be achieved, a student will understand the lessons in relationship to how and why they work. As Merrill (2008) specifically discusses practice as one of the three most important aspects of instructional design, the use of practice exercises is a valuable method in bringing context to instruction so that it is relatable to real world experience. Clark and Mayer (2011) suggest that practice exercises should follow leveraged examples with more and more responsibility landing on the shoulders of the student to resolve the problems. Collaboration in learning situations is a valuable way in which to engage the student in the instruction. Students and teachers can create a relationship in which what is learned is the result of an interactive experience where the teacher and the students take cues from one another about what is being effective. Teaching needs to be designed and controlled, but also flexible enough to grow from the effectiveness of the instruction and develop new strategies in order to engage the student. If collaboration is not achieved, it is likely that the students are not receiving the instruction (Koohang & Harmon, 2007). Merrill and Twichell (1994) identified several different principals for applying learner control methods for more efficient instruction. The first is content control. Content control where the sequence of units is controlled by the student in comparison to that of fixed sequencing showed little difference in the ability of the student to learn. There is a difference, however, in the effect of allowing a student skip or skim a segment when they already know the information for that area of learning. When not burdened by information that is already understood, the new information is processed more efficiently. Display control provides for the student to control what information is put into view, rather than a predetermined set of information, when the expected outcomes are clearly outlined and the student knows what is expected from their efforts towards learning. Primary presentation forms “can be represented either by a specific object, event, or symbol, or by representations of specific occurrences via pictures, diagrams, or other mediated presentations, all called instances” (Merrill & Twitchell, 1994, p. 280). This results in a four pronged system of learning in which both types of representations are used in order to create results. Merrill and Twichell (1994) have determined that “the four primary presentation forms: telling a generality, which is usually called “rule”; telling an example, which is usually called example; asking the student to identify an instance, execute a procedure, or explain a particular event, which is called “instance practice” or merely “practice”; and asking the student to remember a generality” provides for the opportunity for an enriched learning experience (p. 280). Building thinking skills is one of the ways in which to facilitate instruction. Games and mind exercises can be used to order the way in which an individual thinks which can prepare them for certain types of knowledge acquisition. Simulations and games provide context for certain types of thinking patterns, which will in turn contribute to an easier process in learning an overall system of information. Widening instructional strategies to include game engagement that results in problem solving that is similar to an intended outcome of education provides for structuring the mind in such a way as to be prepared to understand the necessary frame of thought through which instruction is intended. Using a broader sense of the idea of instruction provides for the use of games and simulations that might seem unrelated, but have been designed to create repetitions of specific thought processes that have been deemed similar enough to the real life applications of the intended learning outcomes (Willis, 2009). A basic example is the game of chess and how it relates to political strategies, specifically military applications of manipulation of players in a war. The universal design for learning is defined through its association to architecture in which universal ideas were provided in order to support the needs of all people in entering a building or structure. Where older buildings were retro-fitted in order to create access for disabled individuals, new buildings were given a universal set of instructions that supported the overall needs of all people, as the new retrofitted access was shown to have benefits for more people than just those defined by a form of disability. Universal design for learning is intended to create access to a wider audience, creating systems in which more people can be taught. In creating a system of learning that is more widely accessible, people who have issues with sight, sound, speech, movement, reading, writing, English comprehension, attendance, or any other number of potential problems are included in the process of education (Price & Nelson, 2011). Universal design in instruction is intended to create an inclusion of many people who might otherwise be excluded. Examples of Ineffective Instruction The information provided by M. David Merrill on his video is well constructed and articulated well, but for the purposes of the principles provided here, there was more that could have been done to create a better connection for the student to the material presented. As an example, the multimedia principle is not utilized, despite the medium through which the information is presented. Merrill is seated and speaking to his audience and listing information without any other reference through imagery. Although this is an introduction, if looked at from an instructional point of view as it presents a series of information, imagery could have added to the content to further associate what he is saying to real world applications. This information can be listened to without ever looking at the video, which means that there has been a wasted resource where the intent of what he is saying is not reinforced by related imagery (Merrill, 2008). Another example of the same problem can be found in Danny Gatton: Licks and Tricks, which does not use the visual elements possible to effectively teach the audience. He uses no sense of segmenting or pre-training, which would have given greater context to what he was instructing. The surprising first lesson is on stringing the guitar, which has had no preamble or introduction, which is surprisingly startling as the expectation of his techniques distracts as the first portion of his lesson is lost as the student processes the introduction of an unexpected topic. The course continues discussing picks, the custom made knobs that he has for his own guitar, and the use of cigarette ashes on the tips of the fingers (4engle, 2008). While interesting, this first portion of the instructional set of videos does not provide any point of the understood intention of the information that is expected, setting the student backward as the new type of information is processed. A fascinating, but highly ineffective video for dance instruction was uploaded by Sony Pictures for the purpose of sharing the choreography of a Michael Jackson dance. The choreographer, Travis Payne, stands in front of a mirror and first segments the dance into sections, but provides only one go through for the movements. There are nine segments of dance movements, each running several counts of eight long. After each segment he states “moving on” and waits approximately 3 seconds (SonypicturesDVD, 2010). The problem with the instruction is that he has no practice exercises, which is crucial in learning movement. As well, there is no learner control, unless the control that can be used by running back and forward, and stopping is considered. There is no opportunity offered in the video, however, to create space for retention. A video giving instruction on Photoshop CS5 violates several of the principles outlined here for instructional design. One of the problems is that there is no real personalization from the instructor. The text is read almost as if she is computerized, and although the instructions are clear, the monotony is distracting. The narrator is using only one example, creating no real leverage of examples, which could be a problem if the student wishes to accomplish a similar result using a different set of tools. Another example of an even more poorly designed instructional video is created by Paularacy (2008) who infuses music to the background of a non-narrated demonstration of how to retouch a photograph using Photoshop CS4. The cursor moves so quickly that unless you know what she will do, you have no time to process what has been done. This is an example of both poor multimedia principle uses as only visuals are used, and an example of a lack of coherence in the instruction as the music is too much information and the focus on the instruction is lost. This also violates the contiguity principle, where the use of both words and imagery is a far better method of instruction. Conclusion The use of the principles of instructional design creates a better formulation of education in which more people can be instructed through instruction that is specifically created in order to engage the student toward the expected outcomes. M. David Merrill introduces the principles in a video that outlines the subject and provides for the three basic ideas of instructional design which is to demonstrate, practice, and motivation through the application of information in a real world setting. Through an exploration of the fifteen basic principles of instructional design, it can be seen that a clear and concise teaching plan, combined with applications to the real world will create a rich learning environment. Student participation and engaging the student through strategies that include them in the learning process are important to instructional design. As shown through several examples of instructional videos, it is easy to do it wrong, but with a structure of principles that are intended to frame the learning experience, a lesson plan can be successful and enriched through interactive learning. References 4engle. (19 October 2008). Danny Gatton: Licks and Tricks. Youtube. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KRnDMPbtUSM Clark, R. C., & Lyons, C. C. (2011). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Koohang, A. & Harman, K (2007). Learning objects and instructional design. Santa Rosa, California: Informing Science. Merrill, M. D. & Twitchell, D. (1994). Instructional design theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publ. Merrill, M. D. (11 August 2008). Merrill on instructional design. Youtube. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i_TKaO2-jXA&noredirect=1 Paularacy. (24 November 2008). Marry Dee retouching. Youtube. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PX22fufEOBY&feature=endscreen&NR=1 Price, K. M., & Nelson, K. L. (2011). Planning effective instruction: Diversity responsive methods and management. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Silber, Kenneth, & Foshay, Wellesley R. (2009). Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace: Instructional Design and Training Delivery, Epub Edition. Pfeiffer & Co. SonypicturesDVD (23 January 2010). Michael Jackson's Drill Dance Instructional Video with Associate Director/Choreographer Travis Payne. Youtube. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9awyYESUm78 Video2brain. (30 May 2010). Photoshop CS5 – Moving 3D objects in space. Youtube. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_k7Lzz_PVJg Wang, V. C. X. (2010). Integrating adult learning and technologies for effective education: Strategic approaches. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Willis, J. (2009). Constructivist instructional design (C-ID): Foundations, models, and examples. Charlotte, N.C: IAP-Information Age Pub. Read More