The Mississippi River - Essay Example

? The Mississippi River The Mississippi river is the largest river system in North America flowing through s of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The book Exploring Ancient Native America an Archaeological Guide by David Hurst Thomas narrates vividly about native Indian tribes (Mississippians) that existed on the bank of Mississippi river between 750 and 1500 AD or after. Thomas keeps in perspective major excavation findings over the last few centuries and tries to sketch lifestyle of native inhabitants during the time period and why Mississippians could not make progress from their initial good work (Thomas, 1999, p. 151). Archaeologists use the term Mississippian to refer to the number of native Indian tribes that existed between about 750 and 1500 AD (or after) all over the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland River valleys. The Mississippian existence can be identified with a number of common characteristic traits: potteries generally ‘tempered’ with compressed ‘mussel shell’, rural-based maize cultivation, big ‘flat topped’ mounts placed in the vicinity of the town marketplace are all common features of Mississippians (Thomas, 1999, p. 151). Over the last few centuries, extensive archaeological works have been done in this region to know more about the Mississippian people. Their progress from dependence on forests to adoption of maize as a chief source of food is now linked up. Also, comparative studies between different regions forming the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland River valleys show that a common history united them and there were exchanges of goods and art items between them. Bow and arrow were used by Mississippians. They related their agricultural vocation with religion. Mississippians worshipped a deity resembling fire-sun and travelled extensively. During the time when Mississippian tribes thrived, they use to organize large ceremonies in sites now called Cahokia, Moundville, Spiro, and Etowah. The Mississippian aristocracy was powerful with holdings of hundreds of small farmers who used to live in smaller fenced colonies and farms. A large part of eastern North America did not adopt the Mississippian culture. However, economies of all were relied on some degree to the Mississippian economy. Offspring of the great American Indian Confederacies of the American southland together with so-called Five Civilized Tribes are profoundly linked with their Mississippian heritage (Thomas, 1999, pp. 151). Cahokia is often called by the archaeologists as Mississippi City of the sun. Cahokia is one of the most important sites for archaeologists to understand the civilization of early Mississippians. Cahokia was the biggest city in the native North America. Situated on the extensive tidal plain that links the Mississippi river and the Missouri river, Cahokia possessed fertile soil and abundant wildlife. Around 700 AD, efficient villages were set up by late Woodlanders who depended on forests and also grew few farm products, including little maize. Cahokia was purposely situated near the main farmland belt, linked to the land and water routes and connecting the city to both nearby and faraway communities (Thomas, 1999, pp. 152, 154). According to Thomas, the more broad-based Mississippian culture evolved later, around 850 and 900 AD. Despite the fact that sedentary lifestyle of Mississippians varied distinctly from the forest-based Woodland community, it is believed that there was probably a genetic link between the two. Between 800 and 1100 AD, Mississippian people explored beyond customary Woodland-style farming of native plants to opt for import of Mexican maize. Maize has been cultivated intensively throughout eastern North America long before, which was perhaps the reason for emergence of its more multifarious sociopolitical arrangement. Finally, the maize cultivation would be the backbone for the emerging Iroquoian federation of the Northeast, the Fort Ancient confederation beside the middle Ohio River Valley, and the varied stretch of Mississippian chiefdoms that dominated the river belts of the Southeast and Midwest. After European connection, it would be maize that supports the Creek and the Chocktaw ethnic group of the Southeast, the Mandan, and the Arikara of the Plains (Thomas, 1999, pp. 153-154). Maize had been the chief diet of the southwestern people since the time it was introduced from Mexico. However, in eastern Woodlands, it was until after six centuries of introduction that maize was accepted by its people as the chief crop. Archaeologists are still trying to find the reason behind the time lag. At Cahokia, popularization of maize cultivation was an important event in the American history. Unlike contemporary Europeans, Mississippians did not domesticate animals. As an alternative, the Mississippian people farmed their land by hand and weeding. Their farms were usually situated near the fertile river basins or embankments. Cahokia turned out to be one of the most prominent regional centers in the North America. Original name of the city, however, is unknown. The modern name Cahokia is derived from one of the sub-tribes of the Illni Indians, who supposedly made their mark after the fall of Cahokia. The city is also popularly called as the city of Sun because of the importance they placed on sun, such as worship of sun as their deity and use of sun calendar. According to some estimates, during its time of peak, Cahokia was a home to about 20,000 people. Some estimates put the number twice. Major agricultural farmlands were situated outside the city, which is estimated to be about 6 square miles in area. By around 1100, this city was protected by a big wooden fence that was twelve to fifteen feet high. Mississippian people are often called mound builders because of their practice of building mounds (large artificial pile of earth or stones) for living ceremonies or burial. At least 120 Mississippian mounds were made close to vicinity of Cahokia (Thomas, 1999, p. 154). Moundville in Alabama was another powerful city during this period. It is estimated that around three thousand people lived in Moundville, which for next five centuries, no city in the American southeast would match. Smaller centers blossomed across other river systems (Thomas, 1999, p. 160). It is often believed that historically human society has progressed in linear fashion, although with irregularities and shocks. Often it is taken for granted that introduction of agriculture led to better nutrition of people and increased longevity. However, archaeological studies now show that human progress is much more complicated. For instance, there are evidences from the studies of burials discovered in Dickson mounds in Illinois that there was actually a fall in nutritional level after agriculture was embraced by its people. It is now known that plant domestication (genetic manipulation of crops) actually leads to a fall in nutritional value of agricultural products. Studies at the Dickson mounds show that there were rise in dental diseases, high incidence of anemia, infectious diseases, elevated biological stress, trauma-related injuries perhaps because of inter-personal violence, and fall in average life expectancy (Thomas, 1999, p. 161). However, things were better at some other Mississippian communities like Moundville and Etowah. Archeological evidence suggests that these communities were normally healthy and long-lived, but there were huge gaps between classes. Although high-status people had good health and increased life expectancy, burials found from the village cemeteries (presumably people from lower strata) show a much lower life expectancy (Thomas, 1999, p. 161). The Southern Cult, also called Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, was a network that extended over much of the east from about 1150 AD to 1350 AD. The network was centered in three regions, Moundville (Alabama), Etowah (Georgia), and Spiro (Oklahoma). Excavations done at these three regions show that link between them was not just trade-related. Their remarkable similarities in terms of theme, motif, and medium suggest that there was also a high degree of social interaction. The copper plates, ceremonial axes, batons, effigy pipes, flint knives found in Spiro and elsewhere reveal a distinctive Southern Cult. The forked eye, the sun circle, the bi-lobed arrow implies that a shared history and close connection kept them some kind of connected throughout the period. Clearly, there was exchange of such art items spreading from Mississippi to Minnesota, from the Great Plains to the Atlantic Coast (Thomas, 1999, pp. 164, 165). Archaeological studies show that Mississippian society was highly dynastic. Social ranking at Moundville reveals that at the top of the social structure was the chief of Moundville, who a male of noble birth believed to be divine. This was the rank that enjoyed the highest of status and rank available in Mississippi society. Slightly below the chief were those who enjoyed considerable high status and political authority. These individuals, all male, were buried in the gigantic truncated mounds of Moundville, often together with infants and adult human skulls (Thomas, 1999, p. 162). Mississippian homes were thoughtfully constructed. For instance, one Spiro house that is reconstructed had walls made of cedar posts set into the ground with canes and grasses knitted in-between. The roof was pelted with grass linked with rafters and cedar center posts. There were distinct arrangements for adjustment with summer and winter season. This house is one typical representation of the Mississippian dwellings between 1000 AD and 1450 AD (Thomas, 1999, p.167). Figures excavated of crosses, eye and hand, sun symbol, serpent, woodpecker, among others and ceramics items throughout along the river belt of Mississippi river indicate a presence of common Native American culture during the period under discussion. Their folk tales, myths, and religious practices are so evident and sometimes strikingly similar. Apart from sun, falcon is one of the most distinctive and wide-spread motifs found from the excavations across Mississippian America (Thomas, 1999, p. 169). There is no conclusive answer about what led to the fall of the Mississippians about 1450 AD. There is no doubt that as Mississippian society grew, there was intense competition for control over resources. As evidence from cities of Cahokia, Moundville, and Spiro suggests, the society was intensely aristocratic where privileges were gained from birth and hard labor had little reward. Also, in this study, one could see evidence of increased stress on people when society adopted agriculture and grew from its earlier dependence on forests. Perhaps discontent among ordinary dwellers may be one of the reasons why the Mississippians could not make progress from their initial gains (Thomas, 1999, p. 160). This study, therefore, also highlights that it was lack of equity or democratic form of functioning which hindered Mississippians make full use of their potential. References 1. Thomas, D.H. (1999) Exploring ancient native America: an archaeological guide. Routledge. Read More