Culture Comparison between USA and Japan - Coursework Example

Compare the culture of the USA against Japan in regards to economics, social structure and psychological makeup. Introduction National culture is theresult of “collective programming of the mind” that differs between groups (Hofstede). The U.S. belongs to Western culture and Japan, Eastern culture. There are bound to be cultural differences between these countries in the economical, sociological and psychological contexts. Thinking styles As the eastern people are oriented towards intuitive thinking, they tend to make emotional and intuitive decisions rather than decisions based on logic as posited by Nakamura in respect of Japan. As concurred by Mizutani (1981), Japanese culture does not express factual relationship logically or in a rigorous way. According to Becker (1988), Japanese as part of the Far East that includes China do not have the custom of argumentation and this is attributed to languages, history and Confucianism. In Japan, one finds the preference to the use of “dotted-like” or :point-like” and climactic structure and abrupt conclusion in argument forms whereas in the U.S., the culture is the use of “problem-solving or linear and anticlimactic structure” approaching conclusion step by step. This is because of the Japanese cultural assumptions being based on “homogenous, interdependent and vertical relationships which make the society “communication-passive” while in the U.S., culture is characterized by “heterogeneous, independent and horizontal” relationships, which make their society “communication-active”. Okabe posits that these differences can affect “thinking and communicative styles”. Studies by Prunty et al have found that the U.S students display argumentative traits higher than Japanese students (Suzuki). Ethical practices: There is a link between national cultures and ethical culture. The US’ individualistic culture is traceable to the protestant religious practice that allows individual worship if community worship is not possible. Egoistic climate prevailing in the U.S. individual behavior is prompted by self interest. Hence, when there is conflict between collective and individual goals, personal goals would prevail. On the other hand, benevolence climate prevailing in Japan leads decision maker to make decisions reflecting collective gains at the cost of individual needs. Shintoism has been the guiding factor for ethics in Japan. Shintoism which teaches devotion and patriotism has been responsible for imbibing the spirit of compassion and coexistence among the Japanese. This can be perceived among the societal groups including businesses (Parboteeth, Cullen and Victor). According to studies conducted by Hofstede, Japan is a “collectivist, high power distance , high uncertainty avoidance and masculine” oriented country. On the other hand, the U.S. is an individualistic, low power distance, low uncertainty avoidance and medium masculine oriented country. However, after the world war II, Japan went on to capitalize on U.S. inventions with the result there is little difference between the two countries in terms of economy, society. However, cultural differences remain the same (Stedham). Hofstede’s comparison of the two cultures is explained in the pages below. According to Reina’s personal experience, following are the cultural differences between the said countries. In respect of speed vs consistency, decision making in the U.S. companies is quicker as the superiors give freedom to subordinates to take decisions wherever possible though this can end up in errors at times. On the other hand, Japanese are used to hierarchical decision-making characterized by cautious and conservative approach which make the decision making slower than the U.S. firms. However, the decision making in stages preceded by meeting and documentation in Japan leave little chance for errors (Reina). As for Roles and responsibilities for individuals vs group, the individualized roles in the U.S. firms for the individuals, their individual contributions are linked to achievement of company goals. In Japan, individual contribution is a must for the group’s success and individual contribution will not be recognized in the absence of success to the group (Reina). Reina says that in respect of ROI1 of Revenues vs ROI of Relationships, Americans do not check back how an ROI has been achieved as they are only concerned with the end result, thus spending lesser time on things. Though Japanese are equally concerned about ROI, they do spend time to check how it is achieved. In regards to their respective heterogeneous culture and homogeneous culture, the former is the result of multiple nationalities settled there with diverse thinking patterns spelling out what they have in mind while the latter proceeds with unspoken words having a common understanding due to homogeneous nature of their culture. And this is cited as one of their important communication skills. With fewer meetings US companies take decision faster. In Japan, position is reverse and hence it takes unduly longer time to make decisions. While the US culture is used to communicate on phone and emails without much face to face contacts, Japanese insist on meeting face to face especially for business meetings. In the U.S., individuals prefer working independently in cubicles and also at homes whereas in Japan it is not the case. Management insist on working in groups in a hierarchical manner ( Head seated at the front or top with subordinates seated before or under the head) without partitions. Work-life balance is the norm in the U.S. while in Japan priority is on work. For them, work is the center of life. (Reina). Kissing in the public is acceptable in the U.S. Presidential candidates have given mouth to mouth kisses to their spouses while on prime-time broadcasts. In Japan, extreme view is the norm. As kissing is an intimate sexual act for them, they do not permit kissing in public even for the purpose of social greeting. Hofstede’s research on cultural differences between countries gives a deep insight into cultural dimensions of various countries. Hofstede has classified the dimensions as “power distance, individualism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance and long term orientation” Power distance refers to inequalities among people of a country that determine the extent to which less powerful individuals in organizations or societies cope with more powerful people within the society. In this respect, Japan scores 54 which is evident of the hierarchical society of the country although it is not as much as in other Asian cultures. This is found to be extremely hierarchical by the foreigners in Japan in their business experience characterized by slow decision making since each layer in the hierarchy must give clearance to whatever is being decided. Yet the paradox is that even the top most person in the hierarchy cannot exert influence on the tiers down below which explains the “not so high” power distance score for Japan as a “meritocratic society”. This meritocracy is attributed to the strong belief in the Japanese education which guarantees that since all are born equal, an individual is free to achieve anything with hard work (Hofstede). The score for the U.S. is 40 that demonstrates the country’s people are committed to liberty and justice for all. The hierarchy is only for the sake of convenience as managers are always accessible and they depend on individual and teams for their respective expertise. Superiors and subordinates always interact with each other and share information as a result. Besides, there is informal communication which is direct and participatory (Hofstede). Individualism Individualism refers to the degree of interdependence among members in a society. In the individualistic societies, people need not support others except themselves and their direct families whereas in collectivist societies people live in groups which look after their needs in return for their loyalty. Japan’s score is 46 in this respect (individualism) which means Japan is composed of collectivist society. In a higher collectivism, societies will have extended family system. Japan is in the middle ground validated by the fact that Japanese society is made up of paternalistic society in which family name and property are inherited from father to the eldest son. Younger siblings therefore leave their paternal family and live with their core family. Japanese are collectivist by Western standards and Individualist by Asian standards (Hofstede). U.S scores a high of 91 in individualism which indicates that people are individualistic committed to only their immediate families (Hofstede). Masculinity/Femininity A high score masculinity refers to competition, achievement and success that are known for value system right from school to career in later life. A low score indicates femininity known for values such caring for others and quality of life. In a feminine society, quality of life is indicator for success and achievement in life at the cost of quality of life. Japan has a high score 95 in masculinity dimension. But this has not translated into assertiveness and competitive nature in individuals. This is due to mild collectivism. What remains for masculinity score then is acute competition among groups. Children are initiated into sports early in life for being competitive. In the corporate world, employees derive motivation when they find themselves in a winning team in their fight against their competitors. The Masculinity also is equated with craving for excellence, flawless production and services and delivery through neat presentation in all aspects of life. Workaholism in Japanese is another characteristic of masculinity (Hofstede). The U.S. has scored 62 in this dimension and is therefore a masculine society. The score of Japan is higher than the U.S.. But this offset by the its high feminine score too, in terms of what has been discussed above in feminine context (Hofstede). Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) This refers to the tendency among people in a society to avoid uncertainty in all walks of their lives. A high score of 92 in the case of Japan indicates the country’s predisposition towards uncertainty. Japan is perhaps one of the few countries on earth committed to avoid uncertainty. This is because Japan is under constant threats of earth quakes, tsunamis, typhoons and volcanoes which drive each Japanese to be always prepared for such emergencies..This trait can be seen in schools where people do only what are established practices and in the corporate world, managers spend hours together conducting feasibility studies and planning to avoid risks. (Hofstede) The U.S. score of 46 is lesser than that of Japan. This would indicate that people of the U.S. with high risk appetite do not shy away from risks. Thus they tend to be uncertainty-accepting and are open to new ideas and new products etc (Hofstede). Long term orientation (LOT) This dimension refers to high values in life imparted by Confucius teachings. in the society’s quest for virtue. This is an orientation characterized by forward looking ideas and long term consequences rather than being confined to conventional or historical short-term views. Japan score a high 80 as its people want to live their best in the short span of their lives. In the corporate world they invest high in R & D even in financially difficult times. (Hofstede). The U.S. has score 29 that shows the country in a lesser light as far as the life values are concerned. They are short-term oriented and are fond of quick results in their work places (Hofstede). The analysis above would show that culture is a “system of values, beliefs, assumptions, and norms shared among a group of people”. The group could be anything from country, region to religion, profession etc. The cultural system is an implied agreement among people on important matters touching their lives. Functions of culture are acting as a software for group interactions or as a lubrication for smooth functioning of society. Second, the shared values facilitates interactions among group members without raising doubts or questions on every action or move. Third, it serves as a guidance for basic decision making without lengthy discussion and lastly it serves as a script for basic behavior. A different set of cultural dimensions serves as a useful tool to understand the differences between cultures. The combinations underlying the dimensions are “relationship to environment, relations among people, mode of activity and nature of humans”. Relationship to environment refers to the relationship individuals have with the world around them which can be viewed through the three common ways i.e “harmony, mastery, and subjugation”. Japan is characterized by harmony culture in which people consider themselves as part of environment. Human beings’ role is to maintain the balance of the system which is holistic as a result of integration humans with environment. On the other hand. US’ is a mastery culture in which people consider themselves as having control over environment to be made use of for their own needs. The U.S. prefers mastery to harmony as the people can always rectify problems of their own creation by planting more trees, to cite an example. Japan prefers harmony to mastery as they believe that the way to fix the problem is by providing more balance (DiStefano and Maznevski). Relations among people are perceived in three common ways, collective, individualistic and hierarchical. This has been seen in detail under Hofstede’s cultural dimensions wherein the U.S. is branded as pursuing individualism and Japan, collectivism (DiStefano and Maznevski). Mode of activity refers to the way in which people engage in activity and how they expect others to act. The three variations in engagement are “being, doing, and thinking”. “Being” culture can be seen in Latin America where “the emphasis is on spontaneity and experiencing each moment” This can be perceived in Japanese culture i.e accepting things as they are. In the U.S, it is the “doing” culture wherein people are action oriented by “striving and achieving” and they view the work related activity is crucial to their existence and their self-identities (DiStefano and Maznevski). Nature of human dimension tells what the fundamental nature of human being is rather than the nature of an individual. Nature of human being at birth before they are influenced by environment that includes society can indicate people’s original nature. Another thinking is that people are born as a blank slate and they are molded by environment around them. Western cultures which the U.S. belongs to, believe that culture is influenced by their environment. They focus on training and socialization. In other cultures that may include Japan, people believe in others until contrary is proved (DiStefano and Maznevski). Cross-cultural comparisons are made in different contexts. The above analysis mostly concerns the major cultural dimensions. Studies such as the one by Reina above can also serve as useful tools for cultural comparisons as sub-sets the dimensions above. For example, there is a cross-cultural evaluation of human temperament by Gartstein et al in the countries of Japan, USA, Poland and Russia. It is posited that early development of temperament depends on the prevailing culture. The study has concluded that the infants of the U.S. belonging individualistic dimension earned the highest ratings for positive aspects such as “smiling, laughter, high intensity pleasure, perceptual sensitivity, approach and vocal reactivity”. On the other hand, Japanese children of collectivist culture displayed highest levels of “fearfulness”. Earlier studies cited by authors have also arrived at similar conclusions (Gartstein, Slobodskaya and Zylicz). Study of cross cultural differences is useful international trade in order to adopt the right approach in negotiations with overseas trading partners. It has been found that while negotiation is viewed by Americans as a competitive process wherein offers and counter offers could be exchanged whereas Japanese think that negotiation is an opportunity to gather information. American style of negotiation is attributable to the above seen American values of individualism and independence. American present themselves at the negotiating table singly, true to their culture of individualism and independence that propel them take full responsibility for the decisions they take at the negotiation meetings. Americans are usually outnumbered by Japanese at the negotiating table as they believe in collectivism and it gives them the advantage of the team members performing different tasks at the negotiations. Americans prefer informality and equality whereas Japanese believe in interpersonal and vertical relationships. Americans tend to make Japanese feel uncomfortable by playing down their vertical hierarchical positions. For Americans, the first two stages of negotiation process are as important as the persuasion stage is. As a result, American tend to spend less time in the first two stages namely non-task sounding and task-related needs and preferences whereas the Japanese consider it important to build trust at the early stages of negotiations (Koldau). Conclusion The above analysis provides an overview of cross-cultural dimensions and subsets and how they differ between the U.S. and Japan. They are useful for both international business as well as sociological study of people coming from different cultures. There are no separate sections for economics, social structure and psychological makeup in the analysis. It is because it may result in overlapping of the cultural differences. And there are several approaches to the study of cross cultural differences available in the literature. In this analysis, Hofstede’s study forms the core of the analysis as it not possible to analyze the differences through multiple approaches. Works cited DiStefano, Joseph J and Martha Maznevski. "Culture in International Management : Mapping the Impact." IMD Perspectives for Managers 2003. Print Gartstein, Maria A, et al. "A Cross-cultural Evaluation of Temparament : Japan, USA, Poland and Russia." International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy 10.1 (2010): 55-75. Print Hofstede. The Hofstede Centre . n.d. 4 March 2013 . Hofstede, G. Cultures Consequences. CA: Sage Publications, 2001. Print Koldau, Cladius. Meanings of Cross-Cultural Differences in Establishing Relationships in Japanese-Aemrican Business Negotiations. PA: The Pensylvania State University, 1996. Print Parboteeth, Praveen K, et al. "National Culture and Ethical Climates: A Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Accounting Firms." Management International Review 45.4 (2005): 459-481. Print Reina. San Francisco Creative Agencys team blog. 2012. 4 March 2013 . Web Stedham, Yvonne. National Cultural Characteristics:m A Comparison of Gender DIfferences in Japan and the U.S. reno, Nevado: University of Nevado Reno, n.d. Print Suzuki, Shinobu. "Forms of Written Arguments:A Comparison between Japan and the United States." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 34.6 (2010-11): 651-660. Print Read More