Lithium Batteries in Energy and Low Carbon Technologies - Composition, Usage, and Advantages - Essay Example

Name of the Student] [Name of the Professor] [Name of the Course] [Date] Lithium Batteries in Energy and Low Carbon Technologies Introduction This work deals with issues relating to the preference of Lithium batteries in energy and low carbon technologies. In this regard, their composition, usage and advantages have been discussed. Since, Lithium batteries are small, less in weight, with high working voltage, consisting of long life, with zero pollution and security, they have been preferred in modern technologies. The energy requirements of contemporary society demand significant advances in battery science and technology. The theoretical storage capacity of rechargeable Lithium air batteries tends to be very high, and this has attracted the attention of users across the world. The theoretical specific energy, on the basis of the mass of Lithium in isolation, has been observed to be in excess of 10,000 watt-hour per kilogram (Wh/kg), which is similar to petrol, as well as three times that of the extant prevailing batteries. These Lithium batteries function via the reaction Li + O2 ↔ Li2O2, which is a reversible reaction and where Li represents Lithium and O represents oxygen. This provides a distinct advantage in comparison to other technologies, as reaction with oxygen from the atmosphere is at the cathode or negative terminal, instead of reaction with a traditional oxidising agent[Che122]. All the same and despite their great potential, Li-air system batteries envisage daunting difficulties. For instance, the inherent slow kinetics of the electrochemical oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions, produce large polarisation, high overpotential, inadequate reversibility and consequently low energy efficiency. In this regard, several catalysts had been examined with a view to facilitate reversible oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions, including noble metals and carbon incorporating materials[Che122]. Automobile manufacturers have increasingly preferred Lithium batteries for their new energy vehicles. These cells boast of a number of advantages, such as small volume, less weight, high working voltage, long life, zero pollution and security. As such, Ford, Hyundai, Kreisler, Toyota and other famous automobile manufacturers have indicated a strong commitment towards the development of new energy automobiles that employ Lithium cells[UNI14]. Whilst developing electrical energy storage systems for grid storage and transportation, it is necessary to take into account several factors, including, efficiency, cost, cycle life, energy, poser and safety. In this context, Lithium-sulphur (Li-S) batteries are highly preferable, as sulphur has a high theoretical capacity of 1, 675 mA h/g at a safer operating voltage range of B2.1 V and lower cost with respect to the oxide and phosphate cathodes that are used at present. Due to this perception, Li-S battery research has attracted considerable research during the contemporary period. Upon developing high capacity (4800 mA h g 1) Li–S system with a cycle life that is long and acceptable will improve its prospects of being commercialised[SuY12]. In addition, high power delivering energy storage devices find use in renewable energy and hybrid vehicles. Considerable research has been conducted with a view to enhancing the power output of Lithium batteries by reducing Lithium ion diffusion distances. However, the results have been substantially lower, due to the inadequate output levels of these batteries in comparison to electrochemical capacitors. Moreover, these lower levels have rendered Lithium batteries unsuitable for several applications[Lee10]. In this regard, research has suggested an alternative approach that is founded upon functional group reduction-oxidation reactions that transpire on a carbon nanotube surface. In this approach, an electrode is assembled by means of layer-by-layer techniques. This electrode is comprised of carbon nanotubes that are densely packed, devoid of additives and which are functionalised multiwalled. This several micrometres thick electrode can store Lithium up to a reversible gravimetric capacity of approximately 200 mA h g-1 (electrode), whilst delivering 100 kW kg-1 (electrode) of power. Furthermore, the lifetimes are more than thousands of cycles, and these features are comparable to that of electrochemical capacitor electrodes. As such, a device that utilises the nanotube electrode as the anode and Lithium titanium oxide as the cathode has a gravimetric energy that is around five times greater than the conventional electrochemical capacitors. The power delivered by these devices is approximately 10 times higher than the conventional Lithium-ion batteries[Lee10]. Lithium is an element that possesses amazing properties: first, at 200 C, it has a specific gravity of 0.53, which is the lightest of all elements. Second, it has the highest specific heat capacity among solid elements. Third, it has the smallest ionic radius among alkali metals. Fourth, Lithium has high electrochemical potential. Several technologies, including green low carbon technologies, are crucially dependent upon the properties of Lithium and its primary compounds, including Lithium carbonate, Lithium chloride and Lithium hydroxide[Chr15]. This is especially true with respect to electric vehicles and batteries. Moreover, Lithium ion batteries employ an electrochemical process of Lithium ion intercalation into de-intercalation from host material. In the early 1990s, Sony Corporation, had made Lithium ion rechargeable batteries commercially available. From that stage, these batteries have found wide use in a vast array of applications, including laptop computers, mobile phones, electrical vehicles and digital cameras. One of the critical components of these batteries are the cathode materials. These include, layered Lithium Cobalt Dioxide (LiCoO2), Lithium Manganese Dioxide (LiMnO2), Lithium Nickel Dioxide (LiNiO2), spinel Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4), and other cathode materials[Jin]. Furthermore, Lithium ion batteries have the potential to emerge as the principal energy storage in off-grid renewable energy. These batteries enjoy longer lifespan than other technologies, and higher energy and power density. As such, Lithium ion batteries can constitute the primary option for energy storage. All the same, the cost of these batteries has to be reduced significantly, if they are to find complete acceptance in the renewable energy sector[Dio15]. With regard to electrical vehicles, the energy and power densities of Lithium ion batteries have to be increased. In the context of the renewable energy sector, the electric vehicle sector can be regarded as the driving force of Lithium ion batteries. This could render these batteries more cost effective, and these batteries would find use in several other sectors, including consumer electronics, grid storage, military and medical applications[Dio15]. In addition, Lithium ion batteries have been designed to address the telecom industry’s advanced needs, due to their flexible structure, advance technology Battery Management System, long cycle life, and availability in the capacity range of 3 Ampere-hour (Ah) to 300Ah. Lithium ion batteries are regarded as being highly reliable and environment friendly[COS17]. These batteries belong to the low maintenance category. Moreover, their self-discharge level is less than 50% of the nickel-cadmium batteries. This renders Lithium ion batteries ideal for contemporary fuel gauge applications. In addition, these batteries can be disposed with significantly lesser damage to the environment. With regard to power tool, e-bike and mobile phone users, Lithium ion batteries have become the batteries of choice. However, these batteries have to be provided with a protection circuit to facilitate safe operation[Kha161]. Advantages High Energy Density Lithium ion batteries have an energy density that changes with the chemistry. For instance, the specific energy density could range from 100wh/kg to 125wh/kg, and the volumetric energy density could vary between 240wh/L to 300wh/L, which is twice that of the Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) batteries and one-and-a-half times that of the Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni/MH) variants. However, this is less than the theoretically determined maximum specific energy density that could be 150wh/kg, and 400wh/L for the volumetric energy density[Kha161]. High Voltage The Lithium ion battery has an operating voltage of 3.7 volts (V), which is the equivalent of three series connected Nickel Cadmium batteries. In addition, these batteries have a cycle life that is in excess of 500 under normal conditions[Kha161]. Environment Friendly Lithium ion batteries are devoid of polluting metals, such as mercury, lead and cadmium[Kha161]. In addition to being powerful, Lithium batteries are light weight. These batteries find use in several applications, such as communication and medical devices, and electric and hybrid vehicles. It is now universally conceded that energy storage is an essential component of renewable energy projects, such as solar and wind farms. These projects require the storage of the intermittent current generated, prior to its delivery. Such storage can be effected via dedicated grid scale batteries, repurposed batteries or charging vehicles[Ame121]. Renewable Electricity Technologies Moreover, it has been claimed by the US Department of Energy that Lithium batteries could be instrumental in the successful integration of renewable electricity technologies, vis-à-vis Smart Grid development. The advanced energy storage technologies, including Lithium-sulphur and Lithium-air demand the presence of Lithium metal in the anode of the battery. The contemporary prototypes for these superior systems had depicted energy densities that were three-fold that of the best Lithium ion systems of the present day[Ame121]. Funding and investment for research on improving the user of renewable energy has experienced enhancement across the globe. This has been especially true of the solar and wind power energy plants, which have the most mature technologies. These energy sources being intermittent, necessitated energy storage systems that have high efficiency. Batteries, super capacitors and similar electrochemical systems that can store and deliver energy on demand in stand-alone plants efficiently, have proved to be vital in this area. In addition, these devices should provide quality power and load levelling of the electrical grid in integrated power systems[Scr10]. Life time and Efficiency The benefit of adopting electrochemical storage systems has been established for photovoltaic and wind renewable energy plants. The efficiency of batteries in such contexts has been seen to be directly correlated to their content in energy lifetime and efficiency. Lithium batteries have high energy efficiency, and are therefore expected to exhibit an energy return factor that is superior to that of conventional batteries. Moreover, Lithium batteries have been recognised as the best power source for sustainable transport, as they ensure the progressive diffusion of full hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles at high levels. In the full hybrid electric vehicles, the synergic conjunction of internal combustion engines with electrochemical batteries facilitates the high level utilisation of fuel[Scr10]. This provides several benefits for fuel economy, emission control, and improved driving performances, in comparison to the pure petrol cars. The cell configuration to be derived from Lithium ion cells is such that it operates at more than two times the potential provided by NiMH or lead acid cells. All the same, there have been issues with the reactivity of Lithium and its low cycle life when there are high current densities. Nevertheless, contemporary electrodes that incorporate Lithium furnish substantially improved power density and cycle life. Thus, Lithium ion cells have been preferred for use in the larger applications, including vehicles[Väy12]. External electron conductivity is provided by the battery electrodes, which store chemical energy and produce electrical energy by releasing the stored energy. These functions have to be carried out at constant temperature (isothermally), with the minimum of chemical and mechanical strain possible. Novel Lithium cathode materials are being developed in research laboratories of companies and in universities[Väy12]. The objective behind these endeavours is to enhance the performance of batteries, lifetime, thermal tolerance, power performance, energy density and change rate, and to procure the required flexibility, thickness and size. In addition, the cost of Lithium batteries has plummeted, especially from the year 2011. During this period the pack prices have reduced from US$1,300 per kWh in 2011 to less than US$250/kWh. In fact, General Motors has been procuring these batteries from LG Chem for its Chevy Bolt, an all-electric vehicle, at the unbelievably low cost of US$147/kWh. The goal is to reduce the cost to US$100/kWh by the year 2020. The present rechargeable NiCd and NiMH batteries that are currently in use will be discarded for the Lithium ion batteries[Rei161]. As such, there has been strong opposition towards the use of the NiCd cells, as they pollute the environment significantly. Conclusion With the commercial advent of Lithium ion batteries, in the year 1991, due to the initiatives of Sony Corporation, a tremendous change transpired in the storage of electrical power[Rei161].Subsequently, considerable technical progress transpired, and the present-day Lithium ion batteries usually boast of three times the energy of those early batteries. As such, low cost and efficiency will highlight and increase the importance of Lithium ion batteries in the energy storage sector, as well as the sectors that are dependent upon it. In the future, Lithium ion cells will be utilised for providing energy to the mass digital devices that are integral to modern digital living, and which have become the de facto standard for rechargeable batteries. Hence, Lithium ion cells will be the preferred energy storage source of the future. Due to the advantages provided by Lithium batteries, other rechargeable batteries which are now in usage, such as NiCd and NiMH batteries will be discarded soon. This research work substantiates the contention that Lithium batteries are the preferred ones for the modern-day energy and low carbon technologies. Works Cited Che122: , (Cheng and Chen 962), UNI14: , (UNIDO International Solar Energy Ce, Jiangsu Modern Low-carbon Technolog 105), SuY12: , (Su and Manthiram 1167), Lee10: , (Lee, Yabuuchi and Gallant 531), Chr15: , (Christmann and Gloaguen 1), Jin: , (Jin and Jiang), Dio15: , (Diouf and Pode 375), COS17: , (COSLIGHT), Kha161: , (Khan), Ame121: , (American Chemistry Council), Scr10: , (Scrosati and Garche 2420), Väy12: , (Väyrynen and Salminen 81), Rei161: , (Reid), Read More