The Use of Ion Selective Electrode to Ascertain the Levels of Potassium in Blood - Assignment Example

The Use of Ion Selective Electrode to ascertain the levels of Potassium in Blood The presence of such electrolytes as sodium, potassium and chloride plays a significant role in the overall human health conditions. At any given moment in time; the human blood will always have a concentration level of such fundamental electrolytes in the following proportions; potassium (5 – 5.4 mmol L–1), Sodium (135 – 145 mmol L–1), Chloride (96 – 110 mmol L–1) and Calcium (1.15 – 1.35 mmol L–1). However, in the event that the human body is directly exposed to injuries of its main organs or is subjected to harsh external conditions like exposure to such diseases as hyper, diabetes and kidney diseases, there is a high chance of derangement of the rate of metabolism of the aforementioned electrolytes. In fact, it is ascertained that these changes will result to their concentrations rising above the normal ranges. Failure or even lateness in trying to rectify this situations through immediate diagnosis and thus, treatment might result to immediate physiological function and metabolism impairments especially in relation to the processes related to both cardio-vascular and nervous systems. In most cases, this situation can be life-threatening. Following this line of argument, researches indicate that it is indeed important to engage in a prompt and accurate measurement of electrolyte concentrations in serum. This ability will be paramount to providing important proper information related to the diagnosing the presence of illness and also, help with monitoring of the treatment process in overall clinical laboratory. It is crucial to understand that the process involved with determination of electrolytes in blood is indeed an important aspect in clinical chemical tests and it is in fact, adopted within the emergency room settings. Section 2 In comparison to most other analytical techniques, ISEs are considered to be affordable and simple to adopt. The technique also helps to portray a linear response over a wider level of concentration degree. The technique is however marred with some cons that should be analysed in the event that proper and reliable results are to be determined. First, it is noted that the technique is not holistically ion-specific. For instance, there is a high level of possibility that in ion-testing process, there use of sodium electrolyte will definitely respond to potassium ions however with a different sensitivity. In this case, it is a highly likelihood that the level of Na+ can be overestimated in the event of a high concentration of K+. On a positive note though, this disadvantage has been countered by the immediate formulation and implementation of specific mathematical models. Secondly, it is established that the technique will certainly result to underestimation of high concentrations as a result of crowding of ions at the membrane thereby resulting to some of them being invisible. In fact, the activity co-efficient is ascertained to be the exact measure of this since it is equalised to the concentration at the every lowest values when the real concentration is highly positioned. It is safe to note that ISEs then are used for the purpose of measuring activity. Section 3 Currently, the determination of electrolyte concentrations has been made easier with some popular analytical techniques like manual ISE however; none of these methods have been successful in determining the level of K+, Na+, CL- and Ca2+ in human blood samples. On a positive note, in the 1990s, there was the development of the Electrolyte Analyser (EA) that was solely based on ISE that made the process possible. The technique has since then been used for the determination of the aforementioned ions despite its analysis being perceived as being insignificant. This inability is highly related to the fact that EA’s underlying system detecting principle relies on the immediate equilibrium aspect of physical mixtures as well as underlying electrochemical processes. To effectively provide stable set of signals, it is important that the sample under analysis is subjected to flow-through sensors for a considerable amount of time. As a result of this, the technique results to an imminent reduction of sampling frequencies; improved opportunities in regards to adsorption of blood fibrin on the sensitive film of the electrodes position as well as robust aging of the overall electrode film. In other cases, it results to a possible decrease in the levels of both selectivity and sensitivity and, also the life of the sensors in place; possible variances in the baselines as well as the blockage of the flow distribution platform within the sensors. Considering the fact that EA systems always adopt air bubbling technique in the course of analysing samples and cleaning immediate possible manifolds, this result to dry-wet alternation exposures of the underlying sensitive film. This is likely to result to the overall performance of the sensors for purposes of transferring between samples; a factor that solely impacts on the accuracy of determination and complicates the detection procedure even further. In this regards, FIA is considered to be a highly effective technique given that it promotes a high degree of sampling frequencies; relatively smaller sample consumption as well as a high-level of precision. To date, FIA has been successfully adopted in automatic process as well as quantitative analysis of sophisticated components present in biological, environmental as well as medical areas of study and practice. For this case, the paper seeks to integrate FIA with a flow-through ion-selective electrode for purposes of coming up with a relatively newer sensing system of negative-pressures flow-injections ion-selective electrode (NP-FI-ISE) to make it easier with the determination of electrolytes in numerous biological samples in place. Free –Space Optical Analysis Over the years, Free Space Optical has been perceived as being a modern way of engineering that can be used to provide pertinent solutions to the rather existing issues related to local area networks (LAN). The model enjoys a significant level of advantage over other techniques like it benefits from a low-cost of implementation structure especially in cases where there is no form of licensing in spectrum; it uses a low amount of power and, it is also immune and secured as opposed to RF technologies. To make it easier to understand, it can be safely noted that FSO is basically similar as fibre-optic transmission model with the only difference being that in the former; the laser beam is applied and transferred through a distinctive aura from the sender as opposed to the optical fibre. Of great importance to ascertain, the immediate proliferation of wireless communications comes out as being the significant aspect within the overall history of technology. In fact, the adoption of wireless devices as well as their extended technologies has become so rampant within a shorter-period when compared to their use in more than 30 or so years ago. There is a higher likelihood that these technologies will in fact continue to be a fundamental aspect of modern communities into the future. In today’s world, the use of the term wireless is frequently counter changed with that of radio-frequency (RF) technologies due to wide-scale deployment and use of wireless RF devices and extended advancements for that matter. On the contrast however, the adoption of RF band that relates directly to electromagnetic spectrum is restricted in its use and cost given that most of its underlying sub-bands are intensively licensed. Considering that there has been intense popularity of data-dependent wireless communications platforms, the immediate demand for RF spectrum remains high in relation to supply and hence; a time has indeed come for immediate consideration of alternative options especially with the use of electromagnetic spectrum. It is safe to indicate that Optical Wireless Communication or rather OWC in short, is the immediate transmission in unrestricted already propagated media platform that adopts optical carries like UV and infrared bands. Some of the most notable examples of OWC include ship flags; semaphore telegraph among others. Certainly, the use of sunlight for purposes of communication has also been widely used in the ancient Greeks and Romans period. However, in the 1810, Carl Friedrich Gauss improved the concept by way of inventing a heliograph that encompasses a pair of mirrors for purposes of directing a controlled beam of sunlight to a rather distant position. Despite the fact that this invention was initially developed for purposes of geodetic survey, its application was widened to include military purposes especially in the course of both 19th and 20th century. Proceeding to 1880, Alexander Graham Bell was greatly involved with the invention of photophone that is indeed commonly referred to as the world’s very first wireless telephone system. It was entirely focused on aspects related to voice that resulted to vibrations on a mirror through a well-situated transmitter. These vibrations were later then reflected and projected by the existing sunlight and redeveloped into voice at the receiving end. Despite the photophone being a very noble invention, it never came out for commercial purposes. It was instead adopted and improved upon for specific purposes. For instance, the German army adopted the technology that used a tungsten filament lamp and IR transmitting filter that were used as immediate sources of light. There are also significant set of evidence that suggests that the Americans also used the technology for purposes of developing a high-level pressure arc lamps for purposes of optical communication. In modern world, OWC has been improved to use lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which serve the purposes of transmitters. In the early 1960s, the MIT Lincoln Labs engaged in the development of experimental OWC connection that used a light emitting GaAs diode and could also transmit TV signals over a distance of more than 30 miles or so. Particularly important to note, there exist an all-inclusive list of OWC demonstrations that were conducted in the period between 1960 and 1970s that adopted different forms of lasers and modulation schemes. However, there adoption was limited due to their results being affected directly by enormous divergence of laser beams as well as the incapacity to cope up with possible atmospheric effects. Since the early 1980s, the adoption of OWC was now limited to specifically military purposes as well as space-related applications that include; inter-satellite and deep-space connections. Its commercial viability remains limited with the exception of IrDA that has grown to become a successful wireless short-range transmission platform. Now than ever, companies have been engaged in the offering of terrestrial OWC connections that has in fact, resulted to visible light communication (VLC) products hence giving a notion of improved market. These development of OWC links and wireless technologies is set to assist with a broader range of service forms with numerous traffic trends and, also accomplishing an ever-increased demand for higher data rates. Research studies related to FSO continued to be diversified across different fields especially since it is perceived as a complementary technology to RF wireless communication systems. The ever-increasing global demand for bandwidth as well as effective and efficient mobility aspects there has been a robust improvement that has been witnessed in the broadband wireless communication area. The fact that the technology operates under a high capacity and low-cists for its optical fibre has fundamentally resulted to a growth in its WAN and LANs growth. FSO is seen an alternative reliable option to provide high data rates fibre network. FSO is also set to offer a potential platform for sending enormous amounts of informational data in a secure manner over a specified set of distance without the need for investing on fibre-optic cables. Read More

Section 3 Currently, the determination of electrolyte concentrations has been made easier with some popular analytical techniques like manual ISE however; none of these methods have been successful in determining the level of K+, Na+, CL- and Ca2+ in human blood samples. On a positive note, in the 1990s, there was the development of the Electrolyte Analyser (EA) that was solely based on ISE that made the process possible. The technique has since then been used for the determination of the aforementioned ions despite its analysis being perceived as being insignificant.

This inability is highly related to the fact that EA’s underlying system detecting principle relies on the immediate equilibrium aspect of physical mixtures as well as underlying electrochemical processes. To effectively provide stable set of signals, it is important that the sample under analysis is subjected to flow-through sensors for a considerable amount of time. As a result of this, the technique results to an imminent reduction of sampling frequencies; improved opportunities in regards to adsorption of blood fibrin on the sensitive film of the electrodes position as well as robust aging of the overall electrode film.

In other cases, it results to a possible decrease in the levels of both selectivity and sensitivity and, also the life of the sensors in place; possible variances in the baselines as well as the blockage of the flow distribution platform within the sensors. Considering the fact that EA systems always adopt air bubbling technique in the course of analysing samples and cleaning immediate possible manifolds, this result to dry-wet alternation exposures of the underlying sensitive film. This is likely to result to the overall performance of the sensors for purposes of transferring between samples; a factor that solely impacts on the accuracy of determination and complicates the detection procedure even further.

In this regards, FIA is considered to be a highly effective technique given that it promotes a high degree of sampling frequencies; relatively smaller sample consumption as well as a high-level of precision. To date, FIA has been successfully adopted in automatic process as well as quantitative analysis of sophisticated components present in biological, environmental as well as medical areas of study and practice. For this case, the paper seeks to integrate FIA with a flow-through ion-selective electrode for purposes of coming up with a relatively newer sensing system of negative-pressures flow-injections ion-selective electrode (NP-FI-ISE) to make it easier with the determination of electrolytes in numerous biological samples in place.

Free –Space Optical Analysis Over the years, Free Space Optical has been perceived as being a modern way of engineering that can be used to provide pertinent solutions to the rather existing issues related to local area networks (LAN). The model enjoys a significant level of advantage over other techniques like it benefits from a low-cost of implementation structure especially in cases where there is no form of licensing in spectrum; it uses a low amount of power and, it is also immune and secured as opposed to RF technologies.

To make it easier to understand, it can be safely noted that FSO is basically similar as fibre-optic transmission model with the only difference being that in the former; the laser beam is applied and transferred through a distinctive aura from the sender as opposed to the optical fibre. Of great importance to ascertain, the immediate proliferation of wireless communications comes out as being the significant aspect within the overall history of technology. In fact, the adoption of wireless devices as well as their extended technologies has become so rampant within a shorter-period when compared to their use in more than 30 or so years ago.

There is a higher likelihood that these technologies will in fact continue to be a fundamental aspect of modern communities into the future.

Read More