Human Biology Issues - Assignment Example

Human Biology Name Institution Affiliation Date Human Biology Task 1 a) Explain i. How body’s natural defence mechanism prevent pathogenic organisms gaining entry to the body With the goal of preventing the body against attack by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, parasites and fungi, the body has an outer defence mechanism also known as the first line of defence. The primary barriers against pathogen attack are made of physical, cellular and chemical barriers that include skin, mucous membranes, microbiome, stomach acid, endothelia, cilia and urine (Luqimani, 2013). Skin is one of the main primary barriers since it covers the body from external microorganisms. The skin is a physical defense mechanism acting as a physical barrier to entry of pathogen. Being the biggest organ of the body, the skin offers nonspecific barrier by preventing the internal body organs from contacting with pathogens unless it is broken. Mucous membranes are another form of primary barriers and include tears, mucus, and saliva (Luqimani, 2013). They prevent the entry of pathogen in various passages and inlets including the throat, mouth, nose and eyes. It is also used to cover body organs such as the lungs thus trapping pathogen and later destroy it through the acidity in the stomach. The body also has some hairs in the passages such as the windpipe to trap pathogen-transmitting particles such as dust and bacteria while also playing the mechanical role of moving mucous and other dead microbes towards the mouth so it can be swallowed to the mouth (Beck, 2017). Once the mucus and pathogens in various forms reach the stomach, they are denatured by the high content of acid making them harmless. Membranes in the form of urine also help excrete such pathogens from the bladder. Endothelial cells are contained in several body tissues, blood, and lymphatic vessels to protect sensitive body organs from attack. Such include the blood-brain barrier, which protects the brain and the spinal cord, contained in the central nervous system (CNS) from external attack (Luqimani, 2013). Microbiome helps in preventing the body by guarding against the attachment of the pathogens to the body. Also known as friendly bacteria, they compete with pathogens for nutrients thus inhibiting the growth of harmful pathogen and in turn preventing their entrance into the body. ii. If the above mechanisms are breached, explain how the next level of defence prevents these pathogens spreading into the body tissues. Once the primary or outer body defence mechanism is breached, the body respond by initiating the secondary defence mechanism. The secondary defence mechanism involves the body responding through the immune system where the cells, tissues, and organs work collaboratively to ensure maximum protection (Mukherjee, 2013). They do not target specific pathogens defining their non-specific resistance. The various types of white blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are produced depending on the specific protection role required. Phagocytes, which are produced in the bone marrow, offer non-specific protection against the pathogens (Mukherjee, 2013). These phagocytes include the neutrophils and the macrophages. Macrophages enter the body tissues to spot and track pathogens that may try to hide from the leukocytes by entering the body tissues from the bloodstream (Mukherjee, 2013). They work in collaboration with other tissues and organs to ensure the protection of the body from the harmful pathogens. Tissues and organs involved in the immune process include the lymphatic system, lymph fluids and lymph nodes (Beck, 2017). Composed of the lymphatic system are the lymph vessels, which are small tubes containing the lymph fluid. The fluid is made of small amounts of tissues referred to as lymph nodes. The lymph nodes are responsible for filtering the pathogens and exposing them to the cells that that, in turn, surround the pathogens fighting the attack. iii. If pathogens invade the blood and tissues of the body, what are the roles of the cells involved in the immune response which fight infections? There are various types of white blood cells that are involved in immune response and include neutrophils, T-helper cells, macrophages, B cells, Suppressor T cells, and Cytotoxic T cells (Mukherjee, 2013). Neutrophils are cells that are meant to kill bacteria attacking the body although they tend to be weak compared to other cells. Their small size makes them appropriate to fit in capillary pores thus tracking pathogens in such organs and tissues (Mukherjee, 2013). When they are unable to execute their functions, neutrophils self-destruct to avoid further damage. The other type is the T helper cells that guide the other cells by issuing instructions on how the cells are to react to an attacking pathogen. There are various types of T cells where every type of T cell is responsible for detecting and signaling once the assigned pathogens are detected. Macrophages engulf and consume the microbes, therefore, making the body free of the dangerous pathogens (Mukherjee, 2013). B cells are also crucial in the immune process by producing antibodies. The antibodies lock to the antigens allowing the macrophages to play their role. The cytotoxic T cells help in perforating the cells of the pathogen to release the toxic content. After all the pathogens are dealt with, the Suppressor T cells are discharged to neutralize the immune system so as to prevent the cytotoxic cells from damaging the unharmful tissues and organs. b. Specific features of cells within the primary and secondary defence mechanisms enabling them to execute their functions and the roles of organelles. The cell contains a cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane that supports and offer protection to the cell organelles (Luqimani, 2013). The nucleus of the cell is located in the cytoplasm. The various body cells such as the macrophages contain a nucleus that acts as the controller to help it discharge its function. It contains the blueprint of all the essential proteins in the body that are arranged in a double helix pattern. The nucleus of the macrophage helps the cell to carry out its basic function of efferocytosis, where it engulfs bacteria thus destroying them and protecting the body (Luqimani, 2013). The nucleus is surrounded by a nucleus membrane that controls movement into and out of the nucleus. The mitochondria within the macrophages help in the production of energy needed by the cells in attacking these harmful substances (Luqimani, 2013). Such production is achieved by breaking down sugar molecules. The cells in the respiratory system contain peroxisomes organelles that contain various enzymes responsible for the detoxification of harmful substances thus acting as a secondary barrier. Such detoxification executed by the peroxisomes is the conversion of the hydroxyl radical OH into water and oxygen (Luqimani, 2013). The lysosomes act as the main site for intracellular digestion helping the body to digest material originating within the cell and outside the cell through autophagy and heterophagy respectively (Luqimani, 2013). Through biosynthesis, the lysosomes enable the body to recycle unwanted materials. The lysosomes, therefore, attack pathogens thus protecting the eyes from infections. The cell membrane offers protection to the cell by preventing the entrance of some substances into the cell while allowing other to move into the cell. It also offers support for the cell (Luqimani, 2013). Endoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation of material in the cell. There are two types endoplasmic reticulum that include the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough endoplasmic reticulum (Luqimani, 2013). The rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered by ribosomes, which are responsible for the assembly of proteins. Other important organelles in the cells are the Golgi Apparatus and the Vacuole. The Golgi apparatus helps in the manufacture, processing and the packaging of proteins while the vacuole is used in the storage of materials such as food, water, minerals and even waste products (Luqimani, 2013). c. Using the immune system and blood cells as an example, explain the benefits cells combining to form tissues. For human survival, it is essential to for various components to work collaboratively with the goal of executing the basic processes. Since humans are multicellular, cells are grouped together to make up tissues thus achieve the specified tasks. Such tissues that are made from the grouping of cells include the epithelial and connective tissues (Luqimani, 2013). Epithelial tissues are an essential component of the skin surface. They are made up of cells that are tightly held together by specialized junctions. The tight junctions ensure that the air, water and other microorganisms such as microbes cannot pass through the epithelial cells. The outer side of the epithelial tissue known as apical is exposed to the external environment whereas the basal is the inner part (Nuget & Vitale, 2015). The skin plays an important role in the immune system by acting as a primary barrier to entry of pathogens into the body. The holding together of epithelial cells by the specialized junctions ensures that microbes cannot attack the body organs. The human blood is made up of connective tissues where living cells are suspended in extracellular fluid. Connective tissues help in connecting other tissues such as epithelial with muscle tissues. The white blood cells through the secondary barriers including granulocytes that consist of neutrophils, eosinophil and basophils help the blood in executing its primary functions of protection (Nuget & Vitale, 2015). Task 2 Auto-immune diseases and allergies i. Differences between allergies and auto-immune diseases The immune system of a body reacts to external substances by producing antibodies to counter the antigens of the external substances (Fridman & Friedman, 2013). Allergies occur when the external substance is harmless but the immune system identifies it as a threat producing antibodies. During such instances, the production of the antibodies contributes to various reactions in body organs such as the skin, airway or even the digestive system (McConnell, 2007). The type of allergy depends on the external substance the body react to with some popular substances being pollen, dust, bee venom, mould, latex, foods, insects' bites and other forms of household chemicals (McConnell, 2007). Allergies are common among both adults and children with the prevalence being one in four individual during their lifetime. They, however, tend to be common among the children where a number of them disappear as one grows older but others tend to be lifelong. The signs and symptoms exhibited by allergic patients depend on the extent and severity of allergies with levels ranging from minor irritation to severe effects that hugely threaten the life of the individuals such as anaphylaxis (McConnell, 2007). There are various allergies that cure naturally as the victim gets older. Due to lack of existing treatments, the victims are treated with the goal of relieving the extent of the symptoms. On the other hand, autoimmune disorders occur when the immune system instead of attacking the harmful external substances, attacks the healthy body parts. The disorder may occur when in response to an external attack such as an infection; the immune system produces more antibodies than they may be required in the body. With more than 80 types of autoimmune diseases, detecting the causes of autoimmune is challenging for the practitioner as well as detecting the specific type since the symptoms tend to be similar (Mukherjee, 2013). Some examples of autoimmune diseases include inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Guillain, vitiligo, psoriasis, and alopecia areata (Luqimani, 2013). The treatment method adopted by practitioner depends on the type of autoimmune disease the victim is ailing from with the most basic treatment being reducing inflammation, a common symptom among the various autoimmune patients. In terms of severity, allergies are more prevalent with 20 percent of residents in the United States estimated to have undergone through some kind of allergies during their lifetime (Mukherjee, 2013). On the other hand, autoimmune diseases are less prevalent with an estimated 5 percent of the population being estimated to suffer from one or combination of the various types (Mukherjee, 2013). Allergies also tend to be less severe with only a few cases being reported to have reached anaphylaxis. The effects and symptoms posed by autoimmune diseases are more severe. ii. Example of an allergy and auto-immune disease and the respective causes and effects Latex allergy is a common form of allergy that occurs when individuals have allergic reactions to latex products. The group of individuals normally exposed to the disease includes health workers wearing latex gloves, workers in rubber industry where they are exposed to natural rubber latex, and individuals who have undergone multiple surgeries. The natural source of latex rubber is the Hevea brasiliensis and is used in the manufacture of medical and dental supplies (Fridman & Friedman, 2013). Some of the common symptoms of latex allergy include itching and running nose during the earlier stages after exposure to latex products alongside other symptoms relating to asthma such as breathing difficulties (McConnell, 2007). Severe symptoms may include anaphylaxis where the blood pressure may be low while the individual may be facing breathing difficulties. The disorder is detected by undergoing through an allergy blood test. Treatment includes avoiding wearing latex gloves but rather use synthetic gloves. An epinephrine injector is also essential in reducing the severity of the symptoms. Rheumatoid Arthritis occurs when the immune symptoms attack the joints lining. It is caused by inflammation in the tissue producing fluids for the joints. The tissue in turns causes defects in the joints by weakening the joint ligaments. The patients of rheumatoid arthritis may live for long without experiencing symptoms since it is a chronic disease. The disorder can be identified due to its effect of affecting joint on both sides. Other symptoms include swelling and pain in the joints as well as inflammation (Mukherjee, 2013). The condition can be managed by injecting or oral consumption of medications aimed at reducing overactivity of the immune system. References Beck, M. (2017). Theory & practice of therapeutic massage. Fridman, A. A., & Friedman, G. (2013). Plasma medicine. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Luqmani, R. (2013). Textbook of orthopaedics, trauma, and rheumatology. Edinburgh: Elsevier. McConnell, T. H. (2007). The nature of disease: Pathology for the health professions. Baltimore, Mar: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Mukherjee, P. K. (2013). Trichoderma: Biology and applications. Boston, MA: CABI. Nugent, P. M., & Vitale, B. A. (2015). Fundamentals success: A Q & A review applying critical thinking to test taking. Read More