Action and Mechanisms of Saponin Containing Plants - Assignment Example

Pharmacognosy Question Action and Mechanisms of Saponin Containing Plants Saponins are bioactive compounds found in plants, some insects and marine organisms. Chemically they constitute of steroid glycosides and triterpene. Their characteristics include detergent and surfactant properties, surface tension reduction abilities creating a moderately stable film and foaming properties. Saponins have the ability to adhere to surfaces such as mucous membrane surfaces. These substances possess surfactant properties, which mean they are absorbed through the nasal cavity without being absorbed into bloodstream (Berg, pp 123) The surfactant action on the nasal mucosa decreases surface tension aiding humidification and mucin secretion by goblet cells. Mucous is, fluidified facilitating elimination and decongestion. In addition, stimulation of sensitive receptors induces a nociceptive response transmitted by the trigeminal nerve. This favors the opening of ostium raising glandular secretions and cilia movement. Secretions accumulated in the sinuses are then drained through the nose giving quick relief from nasal congestion. Examples of Saponin Containing Plants are Cyclamen europaeum. Medicago sativa. Cicer arietinum., Agrostemma githago and Asparagus officinalis. Question 2 Isoquinoline alkaloids are a class of active alkaloids with medicinal properties. Their properties include antimicrobial, antispasmodic, antifungal, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cholagogue, antiviral, anti-oxidant, amoebicidal and abilities to act as enzyme inhibitors. They are found in ranunculaceae, berberidaceae and papaveraceae families. 1. Berberine Berberine is contained in many plants. Coptis chinensis is a species used in Chinese medicine and controls bacterial and viral infections. Phellodendron amurense has been used to treat gastric ulcers, bacterial infections, fungal infections and diabetes. Berberis aristate is used in traditional Indian medicine for treatment of gastroenteris. Hydrastis canadensis is excellent in the treatment of any type of infection of the mucus membranes. Berberis aquiolium is used as a body tonic and indicated specifically for skin problems. 2. Barberry Parts used are bark, root and stem. Active ingredients are protoberberines and bisbenzylisoquinolines. The active ingredients are protoberberines, bisbenzylisoquinolines, chelidonic acid, tannins, wax and resins. Traditional uses include as the blood purifier during the spring months and external eye and mouthwash, jaundice treatment (by Eclectics), digestive stimulant, biliousness and treatment of gallstones (Hoffmann, pp 120-122). Question 3 Toxicity in Humans Caused by Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Containing Plants. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid poisoning is caused by ingestion of material usually from plants, containing this material. The plants are eaten as food, as medicine, or contaminants in agricultural produce. Cereals and forage crops may be contaminated by pyrrolizidine containing weeds and these alkaloids eventually end up in commercial flour. These alkaloids can also be found in milk produced by a cow that has ingested these plants. Most cases of poisoning result to liver damage. Early symptoms of infection include vomiting, abdominal pain and development of ascites. Death may ensue from two weeks to two years depending on intake, but patients can recover if intake is discontinued and damage to the liver is minimal. Mechanism of Action The toxic effects of poisoning by pyrrolizidine are due to activation in the liver. Metabolism by mixed-function oxidases causes pyrrolic dehydro-alkaloids. Reaction of the metabolites with liver cells causes cell necrosis. Metabolites pass into the bloodstream and into the lungs where they cause vascular lesions. Examples of Plants with Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids 1. Pulmonaria officianalis. 2. Anchusa officianalis. 3. Echium vulgare. Question 4 Over the years, scientists have discovered an increasing incidence of drug resistant pathogens, drawing attention to pharmaceuticals and the scientific world towards studies on the potential antimicrobial activities of plant derived substances, also some untapped sources of antimicrobial chemotypes mainly used as traditional medicines in several countries. The antimicrobial effect of oils and extracts has formed the basis of several applications, and this includes raw and processed food preservation, natural therapies, alternative medicines, and pharmaceuticals (Rai, & Kon, p. 166). Plants have an almost limitless capability to synthesize aromatic substances with most of them having secondary metabolism. On the other hand, these substances serve as plant defense mechanisms against predators such as insects and herbivores. Chili Pepper has terpenoid capsaicin, where its compounds are used as herbs and others as species by human to season food yield useful medicinal compounds. Additionally, Aloe Vera is said to contain latex compound and has Salmonella antimicrobial activity, which is used as medicine o treat various illnesses and allergies. Laurus Nobilis also contains essential oils compounds and contains bacteria or fungi antimicrobial activity that mostly helps in decomposition (Rai & Kon, pp 166). Question 5 Symbiosis is a biological relationship in which two species live in close proximity to each other and interact regularly in a manner that they benefit from one another. Parasitism is one example of symbiosis relationship. One organism fully depends on another for its survival whereas the host, on the other hand, may be affected negatively. This can be the basis of the battle of the fittest considering that the two organisms more so the host. Animals, insects, and plants relate in some ways where each benefit from another at some point. For instance, there are animals who feed on vegetation during some vegetation feed on insects. In this case, plants depend on insects; small animals depend on insects and animals especially herbivores depend on plants. This symbiotic relationship between these three is referred to as mutualism, where all benefit from each other. In this case, plants will use insects for pollination and in some cases, some plants use their leaves to enclose insects and feed on them, on the other hand, small animals will feed on the insects and others will benefit from feeding the plants. This mutualism relationship shows that all these three species benefits from each other in one way or another (Berg, pp 523). Question 6 Over years alkaloids have played an important role in medicine. It is an organic compound made up of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon derived from plants. Some of these compounds exist in their alkali state, but some of them do not exhibit alkaline properties. Several Alkaloids, though they are poisonous, have psychological effects that make them be useful in medicines. Among the majorly used alkaloids includes curarine alkaloid. It is found in the deadly extract curare. Its major effect on the human body, which make significant in medicine manufacture is the muscle relaxation. Its introduction to the human body makes muscles get relaxed an effect mostly desired in medicine. Other mostly used alkaloids are physostigmine. Like curarine, physostigmine causes effect to muscles and thus used in the treatment of various muscular diseases. Tropine on the other hand is used to dilate the pupils of the eyes. Additionally, Narcotic alkaloids also used in medicines. Morphine and codeine, for example, are also essential in medicine since they are used to relieve pain, whereas some like cocaine is used a local anesthetic (Berg, pp 504). Betel is another alkaloid commonly used in countries like New Zealand and Australia. It contains arecoline, muscarine, and pilocarpine alkaloids whose effects are useful in stress reduction heightened awareness and feelings of well-being. Others like vinca alkaloids which are derived from common periwinkle plant are used as anti cancer drugs that inhibit cancer cell growth stopping cell division. Lastly, Belladonna alkaloid and Barbiturates are said to be a combination of medicines taken by humans to relieve cramping and spasms of the intestine and stomach (Berg, pp 504). Question 7 Willow bark, according to research is an effective analgesic if the content of salicylate content is adequate. According to clinical trials, they show that the willow has demonstrated efficacy in treating lower back pain, however, they have little efficacy n treating arthritic conditions. In general, any drug interactions associated with salicylates may apply to willow bark-containing products. Therefore, pharmacological actions normally associated with salicylates are applicable to willow that support most of the herbal uses, in this case, Salicin is probably the most active anti-inflammatory compound found in willow bark, which is metabolized to salicylic acid (Craig & Stitzel, pp 42). Question 8 Members of the Zingiberaceae such as Curcuma Longa accumulate elevated levels in their rhizomes, significant pharmacologically vigorous metabolites that emerge to result from the phenylpropanoid pathway. Curcuma Longa is a perennial herb that is distributed throughout tropical and some sub –tropical regions of the world such as China and India. Despite the importance of curcuminoids in Curcuma Longa, small is known about the biosynthesis of this compound (Wichtl, pp.162). Examination for enzymes in the phenylpropanoid has identified the pathway corresponding enzymes activities in the recent found in protein crude extracts from the rhizome, leaf, and shoot tissues in Curcuma Longa. This result from experiments done on Curcuma Longa is explained by the identification of thioesterase activities that cleaved phenylpropanoid pathways that were found to be evident in high levels in all tissues. These enzyme activities may shunt phenylpropanoid pathway intermediates away from the production of curcuminoids, thereby potentially playing a regulatory role in the biosynthesis of these compounds (Wichtl, pp.171-172). References Berg, L. R. (2008). Introductory botany: plants, people, and the environment. Belmont, CA, Thomson Brooks/Cole Craig, C. R., & Stitzel, R. E. (2004). Modern pharmacology with clinical applications. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Gang, D. R. (2011). The Biological Activity Of Phytochemicals. New York, Springer. Hoffmann, D. (2003). Medical herbalism the science and practice of herbal medicine. Rochester, Vt, Healing Arts Press: Rai, M., & Kon, K. V. (2013). Fighting Multidrug Resistance With Herbal Extracts, Essential Oils, And Their Components. London, Elsevier. Wichtl, M. (2004). Herbal Drugs And Phytopharmaceuticals: A Handbook For Practice On A Scientific Basis. Crc Press. Read More