The Co-Ordination of the Human Body by the Endocrine and Nervous System - Research Paper Example

The Co-Ordination Of The Human Body By The Endocrine And Nervous System The nervous system in humans (overview): Nerve cell: The nervous system is composed of nerve cells or neurons. These are responsive cells in the nervous system that process and transmit information by electrochemical signaling. They are the core components of the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. Sensory neurons have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from sensory receptors all over the body to the central nervous system. 1. Motor neurons also have long axons and transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to effectors (muscles and glands) all over the body. 2. Interneurons (also called connector neurones or relay neurones) are usually much smaller cells, with many interconnections. The nervous system can be divided into two systems: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Central Nervous System The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system, and includes the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cavity holds and protects the spinal cord, while the head contains and protects the brain. The CNS is covered by the meninges, a three layered protective coat. The brain is also protected by the skull, and the spinal cord is also protected by the vertebrae. Peripheral nervous system The bodies of the nerve cells lie in the CNS, either in the brain or the spinal cord, and the longer of the cellular processes of these cells, known as axons, extend through the limbs and the flesh of the torso. The large majority of the axons which are commonly called nerves are considered to be PNS. The cell bodies of afferent PNS nerves lie in the dorsal root ganglia. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls smooth and cardiac muscles and organs of digestive, circulatory, excretion and endocrine systems (involuntary actions). ANS consists of two sets of neurons with opposing effects on most body organs. The endocrine System in humans (overview): The endocrine system is the internal system of the body that deals with chemical communication by means of hormones, the ductless glands that secrete the hormones, and those target cells that respond to hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, and tissue function and also plays a part in determining mood. The endocrine system functions in long term behavior and works in conjunction with the nervous system in regulating internal functions and maintaining homeostasis. Major endocrine glands. (Male on the left, female on the right.) 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. Hormones regulate bodily functions and are specific in their responses. They can only initiate responses in target cells, which are specifically equipped to respond. Each hormone is recognized by those target cells with receptors compatible with their structure. A hormone receptor is a protein within the target cell or built into the plasma membrane. Once a hormone is released, the first step is the specific binding of the chemical signal to a hormone receptor. The receptor molecule enables the target cell to respond to the hormones chemical signal. These responses vary according to target cell and lipid solubility. The control of hormones can be done by 3 methods: 1. Many hormones are controlled by some form of a negative feedback mechanism. In this type of system, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of a substance that it regulates. 2. Some endocrine glands secrete hormones in response to other hormones. 3. A third method is by direct nervous stimulation. Integration of endocrine and nervous system: (overlapping of functions) While the nervous system and endocrine system have their own features, they have a common method of communication. Both the systems release chemicals to communicate between cells. Together these two systems carry out a very complex process of maintaining a homeostatic (balanced) internal environment of an organism. The role of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are two parts of the brain that have important roles in integrating the nervous and endocrine system. The hypothalamus functions in receiving messages from nerves and integrating that into endocrine gland responses. The hypothalamus regulates the secretion of various hormones by controlling the main hormonal gland the pituitary gland The pituitary gland when signaled by the hypothalamus releases hormones that control many of the endocrine system's functions. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce oxytocin and ADH and are transported down an axon to the posterior pituitary where it is stored. The posterior pituitary releases these hormones when needed via the bloodstream and bind to their target cells. The posterior pituitaries hormones elicit specific responses from the kidneys, by means of ADH, and the mammary glands, by means of oxytocin. ADH acts directly on the ability of the kidneys to reabsorb water, whereas oxytocin causes mammary glands to release milk. The anterior pituitary also relies on the hypothalamus to control and regulate its hormonal release, but in a less direct manner.  The anterior pituitary produces and releases several different hormones with many different functions. Similarities between Nervous & Endocrine Systems 1) Both systems rely on release of chemicals : nervous system secretes neurotransmitters and endocrine system secretes hormones 2) Use some of the same chemicals - epinephrine and nor epinephrine are neurotransmitters when released by neurons, hormones when released by the adrenal glands 3) Both are primarily regulated by negative feedback mechanisms 4) Both work to regulate the activities of cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, to respond to internal and external challenges to homeostasis. Differences between Nervous & Endocrine Systems 1) Endocrine System response last longer 2) Nervous System response is faster 3) Nervous System impulses travel via neurons Endocrine System hormones travel via bloodstream References 1) The endocrine system http://academics.smcvt.edu 2) Endocrine System : Endocrine Vs nervous system http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/ 3) Endocrine system http:// en.wikipedia.org 4) Introduction to Endocrine system http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit5_1_nerve_functions.html 5) Chemical regulation (Endocrine System) Chapter 16 http://onteora.schoolwires.com The Human Circulatory System Overview : The circulatory system is an organ system that moves nutrients, gases, and wastes to and from cells to help fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. This system acts as a blood distribution network, but some consider the circulatory system as composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The main components of the human circulatory system are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels. The human circulatory system is broken down into three distinct parts: The pulmonary circulation, which consists of the lungs, the coronary system, which is composed of the heart, and the systemic system. The pulmonary circulation is the moving of the blood from the heart over to the lungs and then back to the heart again. The coronary system is composed of the heart and the different coronary arteries. The heart muscle needs oxygenated blood to do its job. The systemic circulation supplies much needed nourishment to all of the tissues that are located throughout the body. Heart The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. Blood vessels There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries that carry blood from the heart; veins that return blood to the heart; and capillaries – extremely tiny vessels connecting the arteries and the veins. When blood is pumped out of the heart into the arteries it is forced out at high pressure by contractions of the muscular ventricles. Blood This consists chiefly of liquid called plasma, which is made up mostly of water, but also contains proteins, glucose, amino acids, salts, hormones, and antibodies. Floating in the plasma are three kinds of solid particles: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Functions of the circulatory system The circulatory system plays an important role in many of the body's processes including respiration, nutrition, and the removal of wastes and poisons. In respiration it delivers oxygen to the body's cells and removes carbon dioxide from them. In nutrition, it carries digested food substances to the cells. Nutrients from food enter the bloodstream by passing through the walls of the small intestine into the capillaries. The blood then carries most of the nutrients to the liver, where some of these are extracted and stored for release back into the blood as and when the body needs them. Hormones are transported by the blood through the body. Disorders of circulatory system The disorders are of three types: heart diseases (cardiovascular disorders), vascular disorders and blood disorders. To name a few: Heart: angina, myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, rheumatic heart disease, myocarditis, endocarditis, cardiomyopathies, valvular diseases, pericarditis, pericardial effusion, atrial or ventricular thrombus, hypertension Vessels: deep vein thromboses, pulmonary emboli, varicose veins, hypertension, aneurysms, dissections, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, carotid artery disease, pseudoxanthoma, Reynaud’s phenomenon Blood disorders: Anemia, cancer, coagulation disorders, eosinophilia, hemophilia, leukemia, neutropenia, platelet disorders, thalassemia I Angina pectoris Definition.—Angina pectoris is an affection characterized by paroxysms of excruciating pain in the pericardial region, extending into the neck, shoulder, and down the left arm, and attended by a sense of impending death. It may be divided into symptomatic, or true angina, and essential angina. Symptomatic stenocardia is associated with cardiac affections, such as chronic myocarditis, various degenerations of the heart, aortic valvular insufficiency, stenosis of the aorta, arteriosclerosis of the coronary arteries, and adhesive pericarditis. Pathology: 1. Changes in the cardiac nerves 2. Spasm or cramp of the cardiac muscle naturally suggested 3. Increased arterial tension and intracranial tension Treatment.—the treatment consists of two parts. I. Prophylactic; 2, to relieve the paroxysm. Prophylactic : The diet should be nourishing and easily digested, and all fluids restricted at meal-times. Severe physical work or exercise should be abandoned, and everything tending to greatly excite the emotions, as well as the heart's action, avoided.. Paroxysm relief : Tincture of lobelia, massage, inhalation of amyl nitrate, iodide of arsenic, nitroglycerine II Arteriosclerosis Atherosclerosis is a disease in which plaque builds up on the insides of your arteries. Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to the heart and other part body. This disease starts with damage to the arterial wall. Causes of damage to the arterial wall include: 1. elevated levels of cholesterol and triglyceride in the blood 2. high blood pressure 3. tobacco smoke 4. diabetes Plaque is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over time, plaque hardens and narrows your arteries. The flow of oxygen-rich blood to your organs and other parts of your body is reduced. This can lead to serious problems, including heart attack, stroke, or even death. Treatment: Alcohol and all intoxicating liquors and tobacco should be absolutely forbidden Dissipation of all kinds must be avoided, and regular habits enjoined. The diet should be nourishing, but easily digested, and fluids should be restricted at meal-times. Herbal remedies can be given e.g. Cactus, collinsonia, carduus marianus, and strophanthus II Varicose veins: Varicose veins are a condition in which veins in the legs are swollen and stretched. The disorder evolves gradually. It is not dangerous in itself, but it can lead to skin ulcers, phlebitis or thrombosis. The blood collects in the veins and they enlarge even more. Varicose veins are often painful, especially when standing or walking. They are more common in women than in men, and are linked with heredity. Other related factors are pregnancy, obesity, menopause, aging , prolonged standing, leg injury and abdominal straining. Treatment : Non-surgical treatments include sclerotherapy, elastic stockings, elevating the legs, and exercise. The traditional surgical treatment has been vein stripping to remove the affected veins. Newer, less invasive treatments, such as radiofrequency ablation and endovenous laser treatment., are slowly replacing traditional surgical treatments. IV Anemia: Disorders of the blood itself, such as anemia, can occur when the quantity of hemoglobin – the oxygen-carrying pigment in the blood – is insufficient and the blood cannot carry enough oxygen. The three main classes of anemia include excessive blood loss (acutely such as a hemorrhage or chronically through low-volume loss), excessive blood cell destruction (hemolysis) or deficient red blood cell production (ineffective hematopoiesis). Anemia can lead to excessive fatigue, breathlessness, and reduced immunity to infections. Iron-deficiency anemia results from lack of iron necessary for the production of hemoglobin. Conditions such as sickle-cell anemia and thalassaemia are associated with abnormal forms of hemoglobin. Impaired production of red blood cells in the bone marrow can result in pernicious anemia or leukemia. Treatment : The treatment depends on severity and the cause. Iron deficiency from nutritional causes is rare in non-menstruating adults (men and post-menopausal women). Mild to moderate iron deficiency anemia is treated by iron supplementation with ferrous sulfate or ferrous gluconate Vitamin C may aid in the body's ability to absorb iron. Vitamin supplements given orally (folic acid) or subcutaneously (vitamin B-12) will replace specific deficiencies. In anemia of chronic disease, anemia associated with chemotherapy, or anemia associated with renal disease, some clinicians prescribe recombinant erythropietin , epoetin alfa, to stimulate red cell production. In severe cases of anemia, or with ongoing blood loss, a blood transfusion may be necessary. References : 1. The human circulatory system http://www.themedicinehut.com/human-circulatory-system.html 2. Circulatory system Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia 3. Circulatory system http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Human+circulatory+system 4. Heart Diseases- Causes, Symptoms,types, Prevention & Treatment of Heart Diseases http://www.articlesbase.com/diseases-and-conditions-articles/heart-diseases-causes-symptomstypes-prevention-treatment-of-heart-diseases-563157.html 5.  The Eclectic Practice of Medicine - PART III - Circulatory Disease - Page 103 The Southwest School of Botanical Medicine http://www.swsbm.com Read More