The Meaning of Biotechnology and Its Use in the Production of Insulin - Coursework Example

Introduced solvents remove the proteins. The reverse transcriptase enzyme copies pure messenger ribonucleic acid into a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). After inserting copied DNAs into a plasmid, and the gene can, therefore, move into a bacterium. In this stage, a transcriptional promoter is used to make more DNA. Following plasmid introduction into a bacterium, normally Escherichia coli, the new recombinant bacterium has a new gene that instructs the bacteria to synthesize new mRNA, which produces new proteins.

Screening provides the recombinant bacterium with the target insulin mRNA/cDNA. Large numbers of bacteria can be grown after identifying the correct insulin-expressing cell. Cells eventually burst and the insulin was purified from the rest of the bacterial proteins. Purified insulin can be packaged for clinical use.2. Explain how the body defends itself against infection in reference to innate (non-specific immunity) and adaptive immunity (specific immunity).Innate immunity provides the primary defense while adaptive immunity is the second line defense.

Elements of innate immunity include; anatomical barriers, cellular components as well as secretory molecules. The skin forms a physical barrier that is impermeable to most pathogens. Cilia keep the airways to be clear from microorganisms while tears and saliva offer protection to the eyes and mouth respectively. Acidic pH of sweat and gastric secretions inhibit bacterial growth. In the lung, surfactant acts as an opsonin hence promoting phagocytosis. Normal flora of the skin competes with disease-causing bacteria inhibiting its colonization.

Lactoferrin and transferring inhibit bacterial growth through binding to iron which is an essential nutrient for bacteria. Interferons limit viral replication in cells while lysozyme breaks down the bacterial cell wall. Neutrophils and macrophages kill invading pathogens intracellularly via phagocytosis. Natural killer cells kill tumour cells as well as cells infected with a virus eosinophils effectively kill certain parasites. Lymphocytes and antibodies form adaptive immunity which provides both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

T lymphocytes carry out cell-mediated immunity by killing infected cells. On the other hand, B cells execute humoral immunity via digesting soluble antigens.3. a. Explain the meaning of chemotherapy and evaluate the limitations in the use of antibiotics as chemotherapeutic agents.Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer using anticancer agents. Studies show that when anthracycline class of antibiotics causes cardiotoxicity when used as chemotherapeutic agents. The cardiotoxicity could be due to free radicals or due to ryanodine receptor interference causing heart failure.

Other complications include encephalopathy. Encephalopathy may present with confusion, seizures and irritability. Antibiotics can affect the kidney by causing nephrotoxicity. This condition can lead to renal failure, which may cause other systemic complications. In the liver, they cause hepatotoxicity leading to impaired liver function. Moreover, antibiotics can cause ototoxicity. Some cases present with nausea and vomiting. Bleomycin causes gonadotoxicity which gets to infertility.b. Explain the difference between antiseptics, antibiotics, antibodies and disinfectants.

While both disinfectants and antiseptics get used to killing pathogens, they differ on where they get used. Disinfectants become used to kill pathogens on any surface and equipment while antiseptics are compounds that kill microorganisms on the surface of the skin of the body. Furthermore, disinfectants are more toxic compared to antiseptics. On the other hand, antibiotics use is internal, killing pathogens that have already entered the body. Antibodies, on the other hand, are proteins found within the blood where they destroy pathogens.

They form part of the body’s immunity against pathogens. While antiseptics, antibiotics and disinfectants are from external sources, antibodies become formed within the body.4. Explain the meaning of pathogens and describe the transmission of bacteria, viruses and protozoa.Pathogens are disease agents, for example, Entamoeba histolytica is the pathogen causing amoebic dysentery. Bacteria and viruses can be transmitted via personal contact, for example, by shaking hands. Transmission can also occur when one gets into contact with the body fluids of infected persons.

An example is a hepatitis.