Key Thinker: William Morris Davis - Term Paper Example

William Morris Davis Name Institution William Morris Davis Biography William Morris Davis is perhaps the most important figure in the history of American Geography, due to his immense contribution in the field. William Morris made immense contributions in almost all the sub braches of geography like geology, geomorphology, meteorology and even human geography. William, Morris also founded the science of geomorphology, which is simply the study of landforms. As credit to his work in the field of geography and how much he contributed to the shaping of American geography, William Morris Davis has often been described as the father of American geography. William Morris Davis was born in Feb. 12, the year 1850 in Philadelphia and died in Feb. 5, the year 1934 in the town of Pasadena, California., U.S. William Morris was born into a Quaker family in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, meaning his family belonged to a family of known religious movement, collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. William’s parents were Edward M. Davis and Maria Mott Davis, who was a daughter to a famous women’s advocate Lucretia Mott. Not much is known about William Morris Davis’ childhood, but sources say that he had a childhood that could have prepared him for the interest in geography and science in general (Lee, 2009). William Morris Davis attended the Harvard University where he graduated with bachelor of engineering in the year 1869. One year later after graduating with a bachelor’s degree, William Morris Davis graduated again with a master degree in engineering from the same Harvard University. His choice of major at the University is testimony to the fact that William Morris Davis loved science and mathematics, hence his fascination with the study of the Earth. It is because of this interest in the sciences that William ended up being one of the iconic names in the history of American Geography: even being named the father of American Geography. It is also important to point out that William Morris Davis earned his bachelor’s degree from Harvard at a tender age of only 19, going on to obtain his masters of engineering at an equally tender age of 20. This, by any standard is not a normal age for someone to obtain a master degree in engineering, much less from a University as precious as Harvard. These achievements and accolades at a tender age also give testimony to the fact that William Morris Davis was not only driven by passion for geography but also his genius (Lee, 2009). After graduating from Harvard with a master of engineering, William Morris Davis initially opted to work in Córdoba, Argentina as a meteorologist for three years. This important choice that William Morris Davis made to work as a meteorologist, despite his major in engineering is a rather puzzling one since he could have done better with his engineering major. However, it is evident that William Morris Davis chose to follow his dream career of being a geographer, and the best way to kick of his career was to work in Argentina as a meteorologist. Davis went on to spend three years working at Argentina's meteorological observatory and subsequently returned to Harvard to study geology and physical geography, another clear indication that indeed geography is what he dreamed about all his life. While at Harvard, William Morris Davis worked under Nathaniel Shaler as an assistant before being appointed as an instructor in geology at Harvard in the year 1879, a job he held until his retirement in the year 1912. In the same year William landed his job at Harvard University as a geology instructor, he also got married to Ellen B. Warner of Springfield, Massachusetts. While Davis never completed his PhD, he was appointed to his first full professorship in 1890 and remained in academia and teaching throughout his life. Upon his retirement in 1912, William Morris Davis continued being influential in the field of geography by offering to occupy several visiting scholar positions at Universities across the United States. William Morris Davis died in Pasadena, California in 1934, leaving a lot to be remembered about his contribution to the field of geography, and especially geology, meteorology and morphological study of the earth (Lee, 2009). William Morris Davis’ Contribution to Geography From the stories we read about William Morris Davis, it is clear that he was was very excited about the discipline of geography; and this forced him to work hard, not only to increase his own recognition as a scientists, but to increase the recognition of geography as a discipline. Apart from helping in the research work in geography, William Morris also engaged in public administration to help in the establishment of geography as a subject of study in the United States of America. In the 1890s, for instance, William Morris Davis became an influential member of a committee that helped to establish geography standards in the public schools. Davis and the committee proposed that the discipline of geography needed to be presented to students, both in primary and secondary schools as a general science subject. His argument was that by presenting geography a general science, most students would find it interesting and hence pick geography latter in their studies as a major. The system proposed by William Morris Davis worked so well for the United States’ syllabus, making William Davis an icon even within the lower education sector. Things however, changed after a decade of new geography, and the entire system proposed by William Morris Davis slipped back into being rote knowledge of place names and eventually got swallowed into the wider concepts of social studies (Lee, 2009). The Current geography syllabus taught at the American primary and secondary schools is way below what William Morris Davis established as the standard. The science bit of geography, especially the physical geography has been continuously eroded, and the only thing expected of students of students is basic knowledge of social events and their relation to geographical features. In eighth grade, for instance, the geography syllabus recommends that students are exposed to basic knowledge of past events and places to understand how they impacted the present. Students are also subjected to post World War ii events that have impacted the American society this far. Other concepts presented to students include growth and change in the American democracy and the interaction with world forces. The only thing that this kind of syllabus seeks to emphasize is for students to have success in their later academic careers and increase their awareness of their rights and responsibilities as American citizens. The teaching methods are purely textbook based, homework and discussions, with very little practical exposure William Morris Davis foresaw this method of teaching geography to American lads and he was convinced that this is not the best way to present the intriguing concepts in geography. According to William Morris, geography, especially physical geography is a science and therefore, should be treated as such. Students should be given the scientific basis of the formation of the various physical features, for instance, as this is the only better way to appreciate the mechanism behind their formation, rather than just memorizing their names, where they are found and how they impacted the American social; system. Williams’ proposed system of teaching geography was relevant then and it would still be relevant today for a number of reasons. Consider the modern architectural designs, for instance: Some of the architectural structures are built on hazardous physical features like mountains, violent seas and oceans as well as earthquake zones. It takes proper understanding of geographical principles for engineers and architects to design and construct structures that will withstand the fight back forces of nature. In Japan, for instance, the Earthquakes are so violent and so frequent that ill prepared engineers cannot have any successful construction of big man made structures, without mastery of the knowledge of the earth (Lee, 2009). Apart from giving his contribution in the design of geography syllabi in both the American primary and secondary schools, William Morris Davis also had significant influence while serving in the University as a geology tutor at the University of Harvard. Davis also helped to build geography up at the university level. In addition to training some of America's foremost geographers of the twentieth century such as Mark Jefferson, Isaiah Bowman, and Ellsworth Huntington, William Morris Davis helped to found the Association of American Geographers (AAG). In 1904, William recognized the need for a professional organization that would bring together professionals trained in the field of geography. William organized for a meeting with academics trained in geography, and this meeting led to the formation of the Association of American Geographers in 1904. Davis provided strong leadership to the organization by serving as the organization’s pioneer president in 1904, and was reelected in 1905 and consequently serving a third term in the year 1909. Though Davis was very influential in the development of geography as a whole, he is probably best known for his work in geomorphology. William Morris Davis had a peculiar approach to scientific research, especially of geographical concepts. His approach to the understanding landscapes, for instance, can be summarized in three words: structure, process, stage. Structure is in relation to the geological setting, the rocks and their arrangements and their relation to base level. Process refers to the agents of weathering, erosion and deposition that wear away the land. William used stage instead of “age” because he knew that different landscapes proceeded through the cycle at different paces. Stage, therefore, referred to the amount of work already done relative to the amount of work yet to be done in the land forming process. This unique approach in the study of landforms provided a genetic approach to the study of landscapes, replacing the descriptions of individual situations commonly does at the time with assessing how an individual situation fit into a general scheme of things (Lee, 2009). Every time William Morris Davis engaged in his field work, he often began by looking at the maps of the region, sometimes using the very basics of maps. In a way, William Morris Davis contributed by improving the available maps of the region. Most geologists of the time engaged in inductive study of the Earth, without proper theoretical basis for their conclusions. Davis did little measurement in the field: instead, he mainly looked at the situation and described it quantitatively, placing little emphasis on the processes acting on the landscape. Streams, for instance, accomplished a lot in the formation of the earth, but how it did all these was not of importance to Davis (Davis & King, 1980). Contribution to Geomorphology Geomorphology can be defined as a branch of geography that deals with the study of the earth's landforms. This subspecialty of geography has always been associated to William Morris Davis who founded it singlehandedly. At the time of William Morris Davis’ scholarship and active study in the University, the prevailing idea about the formation of Earth was mainly in reference to Biblical anecdotes and explanation. People believed that the Biblical floods in the time of Noah must have been responsible for the formation of the many landforms that occupy the Earth. William was the first ever scientist to challenge this conventional ideal of landforms by suggesting a completely new idea of landforms creation and erosion, which he called the “geographical cycle.” This theory is more commonly known as the "cycle of erosion," or more properly, the "geomorphic cycle." (Orne, 2008). His theory explained that mountains and landforms are created, mature, and then become old (Davis & King, 1980). The cycle of erosion was a model for stream erosion and landscape development that become one of the biggest contributions in science by William Morris Davis in the late 19th century. In his article titled “Stages in the fluvial cycle of erosion,” and published in the year 1909, Davis defined a young, mature, and old sequence in the development of river valley and the landscape the rivers were eroding. William Morris’ basic concept includes a rapid tectonic uplift, followed by cessation of the land, which then allows the river and the streams to reduce the surface to a level close to the sea level. Davis used the concept of peneplains in the build-up of his theory, which also borrowed ideas from John Wesley Powell about the limitations of erosion on land. With this knowledge, Davis concluded that sea level is the ultimate base level for subaerial erosion. Furthermore, William Morris’ theory explained that streams always have at least some gradient and temporary base levels, such as inland-lakes, are controlling points upstream of them (Lee, 2009). William broke his erosion model into three stages; that is young, mature and the old stages. In his explanation, he argued that the process begins with the uplift of the mountains due to underground forces directed upwards towards the surface of the Earth. As a result of the uplifting of mountains, Rivers and streams begin to create V-shaped valleys among the mountains (and this is the stage of rivers he called the "youth" stage). Because the kinetic energies of the waters in the rivers and streams are very high at this the rivers are always very deep at this stage, compared to the mature and old stages of the river. Additionally, it is important to know that the relief is steepest and most irregular at this stage of development of the rivers. As the rivers flow downstream, the waters lose their kinetic energy due to reduced gravitational force; hence the streams are able to carve wider valleys forming the so called mature stages of the rivers. Further downwards, the water of the rivers are too weak to create their own path and hence are forced to meander in relation to the topography of the river bed, hence forming shallow and wide section of the river known referred to as the old stage of the river. At the final end of the river development process, all which is left of the streams is a flat, level plain at the lowest elevation possible known as the base level. This is what William Morris Davis called the peneplains, which literally translates into “almost a plain.” According to Davis, a “rejuvenation" must occur to cause another uplift of the mountains for the cycle to start all over again (Davis & King, 1980). Criticism of his works Even though William Morris Davis contributed immensely in the field of geography, almost becoming an idol in the face of most geography scholars, his works have, nonetheless been subjected to serious criticisms. One thing that has to be acknowledged, however, is that Davis' theory is not entirely accurate, but it was quite revolutionary and outstanding at its time and helped to modernize physical geography and create the field of geomorphology. Despite this fact, some scientists have questioned Davisian theories of landform features on the basis that they describe an ideal world: The real world is not quite as orderly as Davis' cycles and certainly erosion occurs during the uplift process. However, Davis' message was communicated quite well to other scientists through the excellent sketches and illustrations that were included in Davis' publications (Lee, 2009). Davis’ initial cyclic ideas were encapsulated in the hypothesis that, following initial structural uplift, landforms shaped by rivers pass through different stages of development, which he dubbed youth, maturity and old age, until they are reduced to a nearly level surface known as peneplains. The peneplain, for which he found evidence in the Appalachians, could later be rejuvenated by uplift thereby initiating a new cycle of erosion. This model led to studies of denudation chronology, or the reconstruction of landscape histories based on the recognition of erosion cycles and peneplains in the various stages of development. Without a clear understanding of the process and the time involved, reading the landscape based on Davisian concept has been described as an art form, rather than a rigorous science. Furthermore, critics have argued that Davis’ geomorphic model was essentially qualitative and difficult to test. A number of contemporary scientists at the time of Davis also voiced their challenge to the idea presented by Davis in relation to the formation of landforms. One particular critic who challenged Davis’ work was a German geomorphologist known as Albrecht Penck, who was a professor of Physical Geography at the University of Vienna and later of Geography at Berlin. Penck and Davis were good friends, and their differences started emerging after the World War I, and could therefore be attributed more to world politics than any intellectual differences. Penck led the camp that dismissed Davis’ theory on the basis of the argument that it was an idealized version of his theory, along with the objection to the notion of discrete upward Earth movements as the cause of topographic rejuvenation (Lee, 2009). Ultimately, it can be argued that the differences between Davis and Penck lay in their different objectives and scientific approaches. Davis regarded geomorphology as a branch of branch of geography, with geomorphic processes furnishing the topography upon which geography resided. He, together with a number of like-minded scholars of geology, geomorphology and natural sciences founded the Association of American Geographers, a forum they would use to propel their new ideas in their respective fields of researches. In all, Davis published over 500 works though he never earned his Ph.D. Davis was certainly one of the greatest academic geographers of the century. He is not only responsible for that which he accomplished during his lifetime, but also for the outstanding work done across geography by his disciples. Though the cycle of erosion was a crucial early contribution to the development of geomorphology, many of Davis' theories regarding landscape evolution, sometimes termed 'Davisian geomorphology', were heavily criticized by later geomorphologists. When Davis retired from Harvard in 1911, the study of landscape evolution was nearly monopolized by his theories. It was characteristic of Davis to react violently and disdainfully to criticism, particularly to the German criticism in the 1920s headed by Walther Penck; it was also his characteristic to choose to attack the most vulnerable points of that criticism (Davis & King, 1980). Since that time, with a less dogmatic approach and greater knowledge, some authors note that Penck's and Davis' ideas have become more compatible and even complementary since the advent of modern tectonic theory. They claim that Davis' ideas are more applicable near active margins where tectonics are "cataclysmic", and Penck's ideas fit better in models of passive margins and continental platforms. My opinion on William Morris Davis William Morris Davis is, no doubt, a phenomenal name in the field of geography, especially in the Physical Geography. The popularity of William Morris among scholars and academicians has continued to be high despite the fact that he died almost over half a century ago. William has continued to receive honors and respects because of his major contribution on the field of geography. Personally, I became a fan of William Morris after reading his biography, which I found very inspiring. I find William Morris a unique character, the kind whose life can act as an inspiration story to many young boys and girls in America who share the American dream of going the path no man has ever gone before. William Morris is the typical definition of an explorer who, despite the odds, took an extraordinary decision to venture into a completely new line of study and make something out of it (Orne, 2008). The fact that William Morris Davis graduated with a masters of engineering at the age of 20 is something out of the ordinary. Even after graduating with a master degree in engineering, William had the audacity to defy the societal expectations of becoming an engineer, and instead, he chose to follow his own dream of becoming a geologist by offering to work as a geologist in Argentina. This is contrary to what many young men of modern American society would do: The convention is that people get their degree and look for lucrative jobs, a show that career are chosen for the love of money, not for the passion. To further show his commitments to follow his dream of becoming a career geographer, William went back to University, where he participated in many researches touching on the field of geology, meteorology and a completely new field of study known as geomorphology. I am convinced that William Morris Davis showed greatness when he brought to existence a completely new discipline of study within the broader subject of geography. His creation of the field of geomorphology is one thing that every American scholar should be proud of, because it highlights the one thing that Americans are known at: leading the world. His major contribution in geography is, perhaps on the theory of geographical cycles where he explained the formation of landform features, especially the rivers through the stages he called youth, maturity and old age stages (Orne, 2008). Even though there is not enough evidence to support Davis’ theory, critics should not forget that through Davis’ works the world was handed somewhere to start their further research. I would argue in favor of the theory, despite the fact that many modern theories have come up, not because I strongly believe in the theory, but because the theory gave scientists the baseline, from which to begin their further researches. The other contribution made by William that makes me respect him as a scholar is on the American primary and secondary schools geography syllabi. William’s proposed syllabi demonstrated that he was determined to change the way American kids were taught from the very basic levels of primary and secondary schools. This, according to him, was the best way to make kids get inspired and even pick careers in the harder subjects like geology and meteorology in their future careers. The new proposal mainly emphasized on the need to teach geography as a general science subject, rather than a course within the larger social studies that is taught in modern American schools. This method proposed by William, in my opinion, was the best because it gave students opportunities at earlier stages to appreciate some of the basic scientific concepts applicable to geography. The system proposed by William has since been replaced by a modern system of teaching that only focuses on giving students knowledge about names and locations of physical features and how they contributed to our current social-economic status. Real knowledge about the actual formation of these features and how they actually influence our life is of no concern to modern geography. This is especially bad because it leads to scenarios where the country produces engineers who cannot construct big structures like bridges, complicated highways, and buildings because their knowledge of the Earth science is not as firm as it used to be (Orne, 2008). Lastly, I am proud of William Morris because of the leadership he provided both in the University as a geology lecturer and in his capacity as the first president of the Association of American Geographers. This body, started in 1934 by William Morris has continued to offer avenues for natural scientists and geographers to exchange ideas, some of which have been revolutionary in scale. The fact that William served as president of the organization for three consecutive terms shows that he provided strong and visionary leadership, the kind that won the trust of the members. William Davis’ legacies Davis’ leadership in academic geography helped establish it as a distinct discipline in the American Universities. His personal research contributions have not, though, passed the test of time. The cycle of erosion has little influence on the geomorphologists today. His disciples continued to use the theory after his death, but the next generation studied the landscape differently. Conclusion In conclusion, William Morris Davis is an important figure in the field of geography, and especially in geomorphology. William Davis is remembered for his many contributions to the fields of geography cutting across geology, meteorology and geomorphology, a field that is attributed to his own invention. William’s main contribution in the field of geography is that of explaining the formation of physical landforms, especially rivers and plains using his geographical cyclic theory. Additionally, William contributed to the American education system by introducing a new geography syllabus that emphasized on the study of geography as a general science, rather than a social study. In short, William Morris Davis is the father of American Geography, and there is no doubt about that. References Lee, J. (2009). Davis, William Morris. Retrieved from http://www.eoarth.org/view/article/151654 Orne, A. (2008). The Rise and fall of Davisian Cycle of Erosion: Prelude, Fugue, Coda and Sequel. Physical Geography (vol 28). Davis, W., & King, P. (1980). The Physical geography (geomorphology) of William Morris Davis. Norwich: Geo Abstracts. Read More