The Innovative Ideals of the Roman Architects and Engineers - Essay Example

This first topic will demonstrate the innovative ideals of the Roman architects and engineers in their use of the arch and concrete within their designs, enabling them to create extraordinary architecture of their time, some of which we may still see today. In this particular exercise I will examine the Colosseum in Rome, giving details of how it was constructed, for what purpose, at what time and by whom. The Colosseum, Rome The initiation of the construction of the Colloseum began in the time of Emperor Vespasian Flavian in AD 72 (crystalinks 2). Vepasian was the first of the Flavian family of Emperors and intended to show the Roman senate that he was willing to forgive and forget the past and offer the citizens of Rome a hand of friendship. The Colosseum was built as an amphitheater on the site of Nero's land in the center of Rome and took eight years to complete (the-Colosseum 1). By this time Vespasian had died and it is considered that his son Domitian completed the works; it was dedicated to the people of Rome by his other son Titus who declared one hundred days of games at its opening in AD 80 (the-Colosseum 1). A plan of Rome at the time of the Colosseum - shown top right During these inaugural celebrations it is quoted that '9,000 wild animals were killed' (crystalinks 2). It was Domitian who ordered the construction of the underground (hypogeum) vaults in which were housed the gladiators, wild animals and slaves. Before this time the original surface was flooded to house the sailing ships that were used as naval battle entertainment. The lower floors had trap doors and tunnels where cages held the next victims (crystalinks 3). How the shape of the Colosseum was created Amphitheaters are large arenas built to hold games and spectacles of a large magnitude. They are circular or elliptical in shape to allow the audience to view the spectacles from a closer range and to ensure that 'the players were unable to retreat into a corner'(crystalinks 3). Hunting and gladiatorial events were the main attractions at the amphitheater. An artistic scene showing gladiators at the Colosseum At that time there were no buildings that could hold gladiatorial or hunting games on such a magnitude. It could hold 45-50,000 spectators who would queue for tickets days in advance. There would have been a wooden floor covered in sand to soak up the blood (Augent 25). The underground corridors of the Colosseum The arena floor measured 228 feet by 177 feet (crystalinks 3). A wooden construction had existed from the year 29 BC but it was burnt down in the fire of 64 AD (Caggia 1). Nero had not been interested in listening to the demands of his people and following the fire he built a huge palatial palace, known as the Golden House (Domus Aurea), on large expanses of Roman land. After Nero's death Vespasian wanted to offer the Roman people a gesture and set about draining a large lake near the site of Nero's palace and knocking down the great Golden House for its rich source of materials for the amphitheater (Caggia 1). It is understood by historians that the name Colosseum actually referred to the 'collosus', (crystalinks 2) due to a huge statue of Nero that once stood nearby which was 130 foot high (crystalinks 2). A Spectators view of the arena The class system was used to determine the seating arrangements of the audience. The 'first level, called the podium, was for the Roman senators' (crystalinks 3) and the seating would have been quite lavish with cushions and marble coverings. Above this on the 'maenianum primum' (crystalinks 3) there would have been Roman aristocracy and then above them the 'maenianum secundum' (crystalinks 3) was split into two separate areas; the wealthy people in the lower section and the poor citizens on the upper section. Domitian had a further wooden section added at the highest position for the very poor and lower class women (crystalinks 3). The entrance would have been on the ground floor where there would have been four numbered arches probably decorated with a little 'porch and a statue' (the-colosseum 1). Details of the Engineering drawings for the Colosseum Concrete was used as a foundation for the construction and it is believed Romans used this in the pure form for bearing stresses, durability and strength (Lancaster 56). This was not the first use of concrete, as archaeologists have found sources of the material being used as far back as 7000BC (Miller 13). Concrete arch supported by a stone pillar at the Colosseum It was, however used widely by the Romans throughout their empire; Hadrians Wall is a good alternative example of its use. In simple terms concrete is the binding together of an aggregate material such as stone or rock, with a cement and water paste. This mixture is then left to harden over a period of time. This would have needed some trial and error mixtures to eventually find that the volcanic ash bonded with the lime caused a chemical reaction. Although the Romans would not know a lot about chemical reactions they would have understood that this formed a cementitiuos material which if mixed correctly with good quality materials ensured a successful concrete formation. Good compaction techniques and placement were adopted along with the correct water mixture that provided the best ingredients for concrete to be formed (Herring 16). Wooden formwork to produce the required shape was used in a similar fashion to the way it is used today and some Roman buildings still show signs of this wooden formwork on the remaining concrete (Herring 16). Romans were very particular about their choice of materials and used a core of blocks called tufa, a natural stone of the local area, in the basic construction and they surrounded this brick material with a course of travertine, again quarried locally in Tibur (now called Trivoli, some 20 miles away). (Pearson 1). A road would have been constructed for the purpose of transporting the materials form the quarry (the-colosseum 1). They created walls that were between 4 and 15 feet thick (Brim 1). A cross section of the Colosseum showing the wall thickness A section of the interior wall of the Colosseum Concrete supports and arches dominated the building, which consisted of four stories measuring 161 feet in height and approximately 617 feet at the longest length and 512 feet at its shortest width (Miller 13). Many historians believe that great awnings were attached to the walls and sail-like canvases hung down over the spectators to protect them from the powerful Mediterranean sun. These have long since vanished, however there are markings in the supports to indicate that there would have been some sort of partial covering over the arena (Goldman 3). There is also argument that there were masts that held more coverings, however this is not widely recognized, as there would have been a need for further column supports which are not evident in the remains Roberts 4-5). Over 1000 Sailors were deployed from a nearby naval base at Ostia port to move the awnings when required (Goldman 4). They would also spray perfumes onto the spectators to cover the smell of the blood (Roberts 5). Visible evidence of supports on the Colosseum Close detail of the Arch construction of the Colosseum The arch was a major factor in the construction of the Colosseum and the technical aspects of the supports gave a significant force to each of the 6 acres of space taken up by the arena. The arch is completely self-supporting and eliminates the tensile stresses in the construction. The forces in the object are continually in compression (Lancaster 40). Exterior walls of the Colosseum showing the many arches within the Construction Concrete was good material to use, as it is stronger in resisting compressive stresses whereas it is very weak when dealing with tensile stress (Lancaster 58-68). Spanning an open space or doorway, where forces on the arch are not vertical would provide the most suitable circumstance to use an arch, as it would be at its strongest. The correct formwork had to be used to ensure that the structure would remain in tact. Wood was built in a frame to support the underside of the arch and form its basic structure. The Romans used a 'Voussoirs' technique, which involved the placing of a stone at the uppermost point of the center of the arch. It was understood that they learnt this technique from the Etruscans; however they were the first to adopt the structures for above ground use as previously they had been used for drainage systems and vaults underground. The technique was not the strongest of the arch types, however it was simple for them to build. (Leyland 27-28). There were eighty arches on every floor of the building; each of the arches were numbered and divided by half columns of a different style on each floor. There was a Doric style on the ground floor where the arches measured 13'9'' in width and 23'1'' in height, followed by ionic on the second and corinthian on the third where the arches were lower at 21'2'' in height. The upper wooden floor had windows with panels separated by Corinthian style columns at every second panel (the-colosseum 1). Historians have confirmed that there would have been a 'series of bronze shields' (the-colosseum 1) surrounding the attic space on all the panels that did not have a window (the-colosseum 1). In the second part of this exercise the westwerk of the Romanesque and Gothic Cathedrals will be examined to give descriptions of their sculptures, figures and give an understanding of why they were used and how they were designed. Examples of tympanum on the Abbey church of Saint Peter of Moissac will be used along with the Gothic Chartres Cathedral to give a comparison of the differences in styles. Abbey of Saint Pierre, Moissac Romanesque style was prevalent in Europe from the 10th century through to the middle of the 12th century. Romanesque is a word, which refers to the buildings of the Roman Empire. A tower or twin towers and the domination of the vault overshadowed the western entrance to the Romanesque structure. Considerable detail extended to the eastern ends with the use of piers and columns, however it was the vaults that been the mainstay in the structural design. In the large-scale Romanesque churches there was a need for reinforcement of load-bearing capacity in the walls to overcome the outward forces of the large barrel shaped vaults. It is understood that the weight of the upper floors on top of this would have necessitated the use of abutment walls to force the stresses into equilibrium. A vault at St Pierre, Moissac Romanesque cathedrals are covered with sculptures in every orifice; within portals or inside jambs. These sculptures were predominantly of life-sized figures depicting 'kings, saints, angels and apostles' (athenapub 3). The western faade was rather formal in appearance with symmetric figures placed in similar locations. Tympanum at St Pierre, Moissac The Abbey Church of St. Pierre was built at Moissac, France between 650 and 850 (greatbuildings 1). It was constructed of stone and was typical of the Romanesque religious buildings. Abbey of St Pierre, Moissac Their main feature being the tympanum sculptures which often depicted scenes of the bible as a pictorial story over the doorway of the church. A tympanum (or tympana as its plural) is semi-circular or sometimes-triangular areas just above the lintel of the doorway, the dominant place that people see when entering the place or worship (Gardener 465-485). The tympanum at St Pierre, Moissac in closer detail The full description of the exterior areas 'includes the tympanum, the voussoirs that surround them, the lintel and the trumeau (central door post) that supports it and the jambs and panels to either side' (Gardener 465-485). The creation of the Romanesque buildings is dominated by the strong themes in the tympanum. The exterior of the Romanesque churches were there to attract worshippers in through its doors, therefore it had to be appealing to everyone, including those large numbers of the population who were illiterate. The Abbey formed part of an important pilgrimage route and Church officials were keen attract parishioners to enter the church. The Abbey had been partly destroyed by pillaging in the 6th Century. The Normans invaded it in the 7th Century followed closely by the Hungarians. Internal conflicts in the country also brought about a partial collapse and then the roof collapsed in the 11th century closely followed by a fire which caused so much damage that the monks could not afford to rebuild it. Another Abbey, Cluny eventually saved St Pierre and in 1048, Moissac became a priory of Cluny, with its own abbot (Shapero 77-104). The central figure of the tympanum in more detail The tympanum at St Pierre showed a typical Romanesque scene of the 'Last Judgment'. In Christian belief it is understood that when we die we must atone for our sins and be judged. The main subject for the teachings and lessons inside the church was to prepare the Christian for this passage and therefore this was the main subject for decoration on the exterior of the church. The central tympanum at Saint-Pierre depicts Christ as the large imposing central figure, flattened considerably and surrounded by the four evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John as symbols of an eagle, an ox, an angel and a lion (Revelations 4-5) (Dixon 10-40). St. John's Vision of Christ and the 24 Elders:1115-20 AD The central figures of the tympanum at St Pierre, Moissac. This scene is taken from the bible cited in Ezekiel (1:1-14) wherein the figures surround God's kingdom. The sins of mankind are listed on scrolls held by scribes that flank the main figures and these are supported by lower ranks of elders who are shown wearing crowns and holding musical instruments (Hilgar 1) A section of the seated elders of the tympanum of St Pierre, Moissac All of the figures are shown in angular positions; the figures are flattened and marked by strong linear accents; the scene is completely jagged and shows very few smooth or straight lines. The 'faces are angular, heads are crowned, legs are crossed. The entire surface is filled with agitated detail' (Gardener 465-485). Differences in scale of the figures are quite cleverly used to create a vision of the differences in status. The 24 tiny figures of the elders are overshadowed by the large dominant Christ figure. The two angels beside Christ have been made so thin that they appear not to have any substance. The smallest figures are found just above the lintel in the in the tympanum. These angels and demons represent the two sides of the scales to weigh our sins and they are ranked the lowest in the order (Hilgar 2). Chartres Cathedral Gothic cathedrals were built during the late Middle Ages throughout Europe but initially started in Northern France. Sculptures were in abundance on the exteriors of the buildings with numerous detailed stained glass windows. The name 'Gothic' came about by poor means as it was used by a well known art historian named Giorgio Vasari to depict a medieval style of the "'barbaric" Goths' (athenapub 1) however today the term is used to describe a period in architectural history namely the 12th to 15th centuries, immediately after the Romanesque period. The Gothic architecture was only a small fragment of the period, which included changes in literature, poetry and music. The buildings began to show details of the romantic poet's tales or songs. The Gothic buildings were so detailed and well crafted and they were also very costly, so they often took decades to complete (athenapub 3). North Portal doorway tympanum at Chartres An Example of Gothic Style - Chartres Cathedral The Gothic period was an affluent era especially in Europe where trade and industry had flourished both in textiles and in agriculture. The national French coinage was 'implemented by the Capetian King, Philippe Auguste' (athenapub 2) bringing together the nation as a whole. During his prosperous reign he helped forge parts of northern France under one rule. Dukes or counts governed these smaller areas and Philippe used his influence as King to bring these wealthy areas together, as he thought, for the greater good of the country and it was in these regions that the most important early Gothic cathedrals were built such as Amiens, Beauvais and Senlis (athenpub 2). Unfortunately as well as this prosperity during this period there were also wars and disease, which strongly influenced the designs and religious portrayals on the cathedrals. Gothic cathedrals followed the Romanesque style by covering the external building with sculptures; however this took a dramatic change of course by the mid 12th century where the figures were now placed outside of the jamb and free standing. The Gothic architects changed their ideas on the western faade in order to increase the use of the space available for their sculptures and other decorations (athenapub 3). A tympanum at Chartres depicting Christ and the four beasts The Gothic Cathedral at Chartres was built between 1194 and 1235 (greatbuildings 2) The town of Chartres had significant links with the Virgin Mary since the middle ages, with a statue of Mary, which is supposed to have been carved by Saint Luke, along with the garment that Mary is purported to have worn at the birth of Christ. The town's people actually felt that possessing this sacred piece of cloth would protect them, unfortunately there was a fire in 1194 and everything burned down including most of the town along with the early gothic cathedral. The destruction of the garment must have been quite a blow and it took a representative of the Pope to persuade them to rebuild the cathedral. It is now considered to be one of the finest examples of '"High Gothic" style' (Sullivan 1). Detail of the Center door tympanum at Chartres The cathedral is dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The right tympanum reflects the birth of Christ into this world, the left one shows the birth of Christ into heaven (the Ascension) and the central figure shows Christ as a child with Mary (Sullivan 4) . The central tympanum of Chartres' South Portal Closer details of the South Portal tympanum of Chartres Guidance is given in the tympana of how we should conduct our lives to ensure we receive everlasting life come Last Judgment day. The North doorway has a central tympanum, which again depicts the Last Judgment similar to St Pierre at Moissac. The left and right tympana either side of this central theme shows the good deeds of the saints and martyrdom. These good deeds and sacrifices show us the way in which we may enter heaven in the central scene (Sullivan 5). The central tympanum at Chartres North Portal Christ is shown in the scene as the judge over all mankind with Mary and St John His advisors either side of Him. He shows his wounds of death for all to see. There is a lintel separating those that have been received in heaven and those Damned to hell. Angels carry the instruments of Christ's death above His head (Sullivan 6). Closer details of the Damned figures and central tympanum at Chartres The central tympanum depicts three scenes, the falling asleep of the Virgin Mary, her body raised to heaven and her crowning in heaven (Sullivan 7). The Central tympanum of Chartres The lower section of the tympanum depicts Mary at her falling asleep with all the apostles surrounding her, even Christ is there ready to take he to the after life. The scene of the deathbed of Mary on the tympanum at Chartres Scene of the left portal tympanum at Chartres showing the three Kings (the Magi) Chartres tympana in my own opinion show how diverse the functions are within its doors. The worship of the Holy Mother, the acceptance of Martyrdom and a good way of life, the acknowledgement of the work of the saints and their own achievements and the strong emphasis on personal sacrifice. The figures are more bold and seem to be completely ready to fall on you, whereas the Romanesque sculptures were more creative in their whole, for example they appeared to use the whole of the material to give it dynamic appeal, the angled poses the flattened bodies, whereas there is less of that in the Gothic style. This appears to rely on the figures being more realistic to the eye, more imposing, less tiny details, more looming and life like. Romanesque details seems to be crammed into every orifice, every part of the exterior of the building is used up, whereas in the Gothic churches there is greater concentration on making the story real and the human figures believable. In the third and final exercise the Etruscan people will be examined. Their way of life, and death will be detailed along with their attitudes about everyday living, their influence on the Roman people and how their lives were shown in their artwork. A Map showing Etruscan territory The Etruscan people, known as the Rasenna, settled in the region of the Italian Peninsular from, it was believed, the eastern Mediterranean area (although no one is really certain) in around 700 BCE, although there is no real conclusion to this date. Historians have been looking at the writings of the people of different lands and some use the Etruscan alphabet, which they have then used to determine a date line for the actual settlement of the Etruscans (santamarinella 1). The region they occupied was 'between the Apennine mountain range and the Tyrrhenian Sea' (Hooker 1). At this time there was no such place as Rome, it was only a small village right next to the Etruscan settlements along the Tiber River. The Romans were strongly influenced by these new settlers and soon adopted their language as well as their cultures and way of life. The Etruscans formed councils where elected members governed the towns and cities. Most of the Etruscans were farmers, however they were astute enough to form an army, which forced the Italian people to work for them on the heavy labour tasks on their farms. During the 6th and 7th Centuries most of the indigenous people worked for the Etruscans (Hooker 1). An Etruscan tomb decoration The Etruscans had formed many of their ideals and life on the Greeks. They adopted a very similar alphabet, created artwork and sculptures in the Greek styles, worshiped similar gods and tried to prophesise on their futures using the same rituals developed by the Greeks. Etruscans treated men and women as equals, which was unheard of in those times in most cultures (Hooker 1). An artists impression of an Etruscan Tomb Death was an important was of life for the Etruscans. Historians believe that from the remains of the Etruscan Tombs they must have had quite a large ceremony at a funeral. It is also understood that they may have had similar religious beliefs as the Egyptians, whereby the soul does not completely leave the body (Spivy, Stoddart 28- 49). Strangely though in contrast to this there have been findings that relate to the cremation of bodies, with elaborate urns being discovered. Over a period of time these cremations stopped and bodies were entombed following elaborate preparations. The first discovery of these burials was in Tarquinia and Caere, but not in Etruria where it is understood that they continued with cremations as late as the 1st Century BC. Funeral details would have incorporated many trades to ensure they had sufficient luxuries, many of which must have been imported as they were quite unusual and exotic, for example ostrich feathers and gold and ivory have been discovered at the burial sites (Knight 127-130). An artist impression of an Etruscan Pantheon At funerals it is believed that the Etruscans took the opportunity to have a good time together. They played games, danced and held sporting events. Tomb details depict large chariot races and athletic events that would have been held at stadiums. A Etruscan warriors helmet These Tombs were found above ground; however there have been discoveries of the Etruscans burying underground at a later period. The tombs were still lavish and painted and decorated elaborately. The architecture was grand as were the use of materials and other features that would have made it personal for each occupant. A Painting found in an Etruscan tomb There was a period called 'Orientalizing' (mysteriousetruscans 2) when the Etruscans showed signs of a strong eastern influence in their designs and artwork. Discoveries have indicated that the Greek settlers also influenced their lives, particularly in the artefacts found at burial sites, some of which showed signs of grape remains. This was a period of great wealth for the Etruscans, trade was prospering in engineering and agriculture and the rich were getting wealthier. This period was between the 8th and 7th Centuries BC (mysteriousetruscans 2). Trade by sea was very much in their control along with mining and agricultural exchanges during this Orientalizing period. The mining included the extraction of metals from the earth, which they used in their sculptures. These were a particular elongated or stretched technique, which has been copied by many artists since; one of particular note is Giacometti who was strongly influenced by their shape as can be seen in his own work. Examples of the Etruscans stretched bronzes A Giacometti figure The tombs showed detailed paintings of the Etruscan way of life. Such remains at Tarqunii and Cerveteri where there are murals showing large feasts.It is understood that the family of the deceased would have celebrated their life by holding a banquet where it is believed the soul of their newly departed would be present. Depending on your status, numerous servants would wait on your invited guests. The Etruscans were well know for their well dressed slaves, who would have lived with them in their own homes, something which we do today but was unheard of in the class dictated system of their day. Ever detail at the ceremony would have been arranged, the meats the grapes, the tableware for the various courses and the coverings would have been prepared for the occasion. An Etruscan tomb Unfortunately Etruscan art in their everyday lives has not survived the centuries, so historians are only able to view and determine their existences from the remains at burial sites. They have been able to read Roman details of how the Etruscans way of life was destroyed and what became of many of their art works (crystalinks 7) Remains of Etruscan Pottery Historians believe that the many gods that they worshipped controlled the Etruscans destiny. They had a particular deity for everything in their lives, such as the migration of birds or the internal organs of animals. They were a very superstitious people and specially trained priests called Augurs would interpret the meaning of any signs that the people saw. They used three different books to help them determine the signs. One was called 'libri haruspicini' (crystalinks 5) which gave details of the livers of animals which enabled them to predict their future, a second was called 'libri fulgurates' (crystalinks 5), which showed them the meaning of thunder and lightening and a third was called 'libri rituales' (crystalinks 5), which covered anything else that might appear (crystalinks 5). An Etruscan Bronze The Etruscans became adept at many things. Water diving was a particular specialism, which they passed onto the Romans. This would ensure that they had sufficient drinking water from underground wells and drainage systems for their crops. The Romans later introduced the drainage and water system throughout their empire (Roth 30). Points of Etruscan water wells, tunnels and drainage systems The priests were directed to the heavens and the stars to obtain any meanings from the signs. These stars played an important part in their existence and this was also passed onto the Romans, who began developing further astronomical charts based on the Etruscans ideas. Often the priests would help to determine the layout of people's dwellings by forecasting where the front and back of the house should lie in relation to the stars. Sections of animal's liver were divided between the different aspects of the cosmos to determine the future (Barker 12). An Etruscan astronomical chart A Greek historian is supposed to have declared that Etruscan women would have many lovers and that often at large parties the women would have sex with many men. There is no evidence that these orgies were commonplace in Etruscan society. Their artwork depicts all males naked whereas women are fully clothed, except if she were a goddess. It is certainly shown on the pottery pictures and tomb artworks that they held women in high esteem and that she would have been the central focus of the family unit. The females are shown dancing, eating and looking happy. The women in the tomb artwork were also chariot drivers and historian believe that they would have been able to own businesses and inherit land and property similar to males. The Etruscan female deity were controllers of their pleasure and joyful aspects of their lives. Their burial tombs were for both men and women, unlike the Greeks and Romans who only had male occupants. The Etruscan women would also have had their own names unlike those in Roman society (Bonfante 2). Etruscan pottery showing scenes of men and women The Etruscan were ingenious engineers who not only dug wells and provided drainage systems, they also constructed aqueducts to transport the water and basilicas for their governing body in the center of their cities (Ravelli 7). An Etruscan water tunnel These are often thought to be Roman inventions, however there is evidence that these were first developed by the Etruscans and then later used by the Romans. The construction of their elaborate tombs was also copied by the Romans, as were many of their art details and sculptures. Frescoes painted directly onto wet plaster were an Etruscan idea (Roth 30-32) An Etruscan Fresco It appears that the Etruscans vanished as a race, assimilated into the Roman way of life, with the destruction of most of their way of life by the Romans, there only remained the tombs to leave us any clues about their existence. Works Cited Athenapub. Gothic Sculpture. Found at http://www.athenapub.com/14gothic-sculpture.htm. 1996-2006. Accessed on April 13th, 2006. Auguet, Roland. Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games. London: Allen and Unwin, 1972. Barker, G. and T. Rasmussen. The Etruscans. London: Blackwell, 1998 Bonfante, Larissa Dr. Etruscan Society. 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Details of the dates and construction materials found at http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Moissac_Abbey.html. Accessed on April, 20th, 2006. Herring, Benjamin. The Secrets of Roman Concrete. Constructor Magazine. September 2002 Hilgar, Marie-France, Dr. Moissac, The Abbey of Saint Peter. An Abbey publication, June 2002, Volume XXV, Number 6. Hooker, Richard. Rome, The Etruscans. 1996-1999, an information page available at http://www.wsu.edu/dee/ROME/ETRUSCAN.HTM. Accessed on April 14th, 2006. Knight, W.F. Elysion: On Ancient Greek and Roman Beliefs concerning a Life after Death Classical Philology, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Apr., 1974) , pp. 127-130 Lancaster, Lynne. Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome. Innovations in Context. Ohio UniversityPublished September 2005 | 296 pages Miller, Stephen. The Secrets of Roman Concrete. Constructor Magazine. September 2002. Pearson, John. Arena: The Story of the Colosseum. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. Ravelli, F., Howarth, P.J., Etruscan cuniculi : Tunnels for the collection of pure water International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, Transactions of XII International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, Fort Collins - U.S.A., vol. II, 1984. Roth, Leland M. Understanding Archtecture: Its Elements History and Meaning. Oxford, UK 1993. Westview Press. Santamarinella. The Etruscans. Found at http://www.comune.santamarinella.rm.it/museo/html/inglese/a15.html. Accessed on April 13th, 2006. Schapiro Meyer, The Romanesque Sculpture of Moissac, (New York: Georges Braziller, Inc., 1985), ISBN 0-8076-1119-0, pp. 77-104. Spivy, N. and S. Stoddart. Etruscan Italy. London: Batsford, 1990. Sullivan, Mary Ann. Digital Imaging and Photographs. An art historian. Photographic reproductions, descriptions and images of the Abbey of St Pierre, Moissac. The-Colosseum. The Colosseum. A history found at http://www.the-colosseum.net/idx-en.htm. Accessed on April 21st, 2006. Read More