Responsive / Biomimetic designs for climate change adaptation and mitigation - Literature review Example

?RESPONSIVE BIOMIMETIC DESIGNS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION Introduction According to Evansand Steven (2009, p. 2) climate change creates a massive and multidimensional challenge to the world. Climate change is triggered by the continued concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Human activities are blamed for the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is the most abundant of the greenhouse gases. The impacts of climate change include flooding, heat waves, drought, impacts on people’s health and loss of biodiversity. There have been several international convections and treaties to address these issues but the impact of the treaties remains a mirage in helping to curb climate change since their implementation remains the prerogative of member states. Evans and Steven (2009, p. 2) further assert that stabilization of the climate can only be achieved through innovations that will lead to reduction in emissions and devise an effective way for dealing with the impacts. The built environment is a key driver of climate change with Majal (2010, p.10) reporting that buildings globally used about a third total energy consumed and contribute to more than 50 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, Majal (2010, p.10) notes that research on the contribution of buildings to climate change has shown that energy use in buildings could be brought down by about 30 to 35 percent through efficient use of energy. These statistics are an indicator of the significant shift that need to be adopted in the building sector to help cut down greenhouse gas emissions and respond effective to climate change impacts. Consequently, there should be change in the architectural design and the need to implement responsive and biomimicry techniques in architecture that can help buildings adapt to climate change. This paper will present literature review on different responsive building designs that use biomimicry to adapt with climate. Definitions and Background According to Sterk (2010, p. 3) responsive architecture is the type of building technique that is able to change its form, to reflect the environmental conditions surrounding it. Sterk (2010, p. 3) further explains that the term was introduced by Nicholas Negroponte in the 1960s at the time when spatial designs were being tried to be resolved using cybernetics in architecture. Sterk (2010, p. 3) explains that the idea of responsive architecture was advanced and observes that the works of Diller and Scofidio (Blur), deCoi (Aegis Hypo-surface), and NOX (Freshwater Pavillion, NL) are examples of responsive architecture. The works monitor fluctuations in the environment and changes its form in response to these changes. Blur project depends on the responsive characteristics of the clouds to change its form. In the NOX project, responsiveness is enhanced by use of a programmable audio-visual interior. Figure 1 showing the Blur that responds to changes in cloud Source: Designboom, 2002 Responsive architecture must have the ability to cope with varying loading conditions caused by environmental changes and also the response made to these changes is controlled as described by Sterk (2010, p. 3). He further holds that responsive architectures must offer shelter from changing environmental conditions. Responsive building can borrow from existing built and un-built precedents to gain insights on valuable designs that can be implemented. Biomimicry may be explained as a process whereby natural world strategies are emulated and used in producing designs as well as innovations that lead to a somehow more sustainable architecture. It may involve mimicking an organism; the behavior of an organism; or even an ecosystem basing on its form, its material, and the method in its construction, its process strategies or even functions. The process of mimicking organisms and ecosystems requires the translation of the concepts into appropriate solutions applicable in the human context. It is this process of translation that comes up with the required designs. However, these designs are not always similar to organisms in question or even the ecosystem that inspire their production, but only utilize the functional concepts of the organisms and ecosystem (Calabrese et al., 2009, p.54). Engineers have since become more aware of nature’s potential to contribute to improving the functioning of our systems. Two approaches have generally been recognized when addressing Biomimicry. The first approach deals with defining the design problem after which a reference is made to how nature has been solving it. The other approach deals with defining the behavior, or may be, the function in the organism or ecosystem in question, then making it into a given design. The whole process involves a transfer of technology, notably from biology to engineering through TRIZ, which is a theory that deals with a kind of problem solving that is inventive in nature (Hensel et al., 2006, p.128). Biomimicry in architecture can be readily noticed “in products and materials rather than buildings. Technologies that are inspired by biology usually apply to various areas of a building construction, and these may include insulation, windows as well as electric lighting. It may also apply to a building’s mechanical systems as well as its controls. Biomimicry seems to hold a brighter future for architecture as it is full of promising innovations that may lead to more sustainable “built environment,” (Calabrese et al., 2009, p. 54). Biomimicry has proved to work so well in the built environment when climate change is put into consideration. Many technologies and designs have been advanced to help in mitigating the factors that cause climate change (Mohr et al., 2009, 216). Control of Energy Consumption in Buildings and Control of GHG Emission Buildings contribute significantly to the amount of energy used globally and in turn lead to global warming. Control of the type of energy source used in buildings needs to be addressed. Architects need to come up with designs that allow for reduced heating requirement in buildings especially during winter. This can be achieved by proposing the utilization of materials that are able to insulate room from the outside weather conditions. In addition the buildings’ design allows for the building to receive natural ventilation from wind. So many organization and buildings today stand as a proof that biomimicry is very instrumental in bringing energy efficiency as well reducing the dependence on fossil fuels. A good example is Bionic car by Daimler Chrysler (2005). (Richard, 2005) explains that its large volume, “small wheel base concept” was inspired by the aerodynamic as well as strength features of the boxfish. The car is more fuel-efficient and very rigid. The car’s chassis as well as structure also stand out as biomimetic due to the fact that the designers used a “computer modeling” technique which mimicked “how trees grow in a way that minimizes stress concentrations.” Figure 2 showing Bionic car by Dailmer Chrysler Source: Richard, 2005. Another example is the Eastgate building in Zimbabwe which was purposefully built with an aim to achieve a thermally stable “interior environment” that would use the least possible mechanical cooling. This also led to little GHG emission. Figure 3 showing Eastgate building in Zimbabwe Source: Doan, 2007 (Doan, 2007) observes that the designer, Pearce, was partly inspired by the “principles of induced flow and the use of thermal capacity” to control temperature as seen in termite “mounds” found in southern Africa. This led to a great reduction in use of energy as well as efficiently controlling temperatures within the building to make the interior environment comfortable at all times. Pearce also applied biomimetic designs in designing another house, Council House 2 (CH2) in Melbourne, Australia in 2006. Figure 4 showing Council House 2 (CH2) and turbine detail in Melbourne, Australia Source: Fortmeyer, 2008 In this house, water is “mimed and cleaned from the sewer beneath,” then it is used for air conditioning within the same building. This design was inspired by how some given species of termites utilize the “proximity of aquifer” water a mechanism for cooling, through evaporation (Thomas and Garnham, 2007, p.61). Biomimicry has been employed in architecture to reduce the emission of GHG to the environment. This mostly falls under biomimetic production of energy so as to check climate change. There are many technologies that target to introduce new sources of energy other than fossil fuels, which has been the basic source of energy for years. A good example is the mimicking of “the photosynthesis process in solar energy cell technology.” Another example is the making of “ocean energy technologies” which mimic the movement of sea kelp (Mohr et al., 2009, 216). Building and Day Lighting Day lighting is regulated admission of natural light into the building to save on electricity bill and energy in general. A responsive day lighting system comprises of daylight apertures such as windows and a system to control lighting in the building. There is a rule of the thumb applicable in determining the height of window to allow adequate light into the working surface. Majal (2010, p.65) observes that light gets to a depth of two and half times the height of the window. This should be incorporated in designs to guarantee adequate light. In addition, Majal (2010, p.65) proposes that light penetration spaces should be located in a high place to allow for better penetration of light. Day lighting is not only achieved by increasing the number of windows, but the daylight can be increased by reflecting daylight in the room to increase brightness. Majal (2010, p.69) describes that when a light shelf is properly designed, it has the ability increase the brightness in the room by reflecting light in the room. Good siting of the building is critical in ensuring natural lighting in the room in addition to implementing designs that will maximize the responsiveness of the window. While skylights are important, they should have a double layered material that prevents direct glare of light to the occupants. A responsive building should employ the use daylight responsive electric lighting control systems that save energy by dimming or turning off the lights when natural light gets into the building. A successful day lighting system should incorporate the use of shading devices to control the brightness in the room. Majal (2010, p.70) argues that architects ought to avoid direct sunlight beam on working areas of visual tasks. This is because in such areas, discomfort and poor visibility results if there are excessive variations in brightness. To further control the amount of direct light into a building, Majal (2010, p.72) observes that such light can be filtered by use of vegetation, louvers, or curtains which also help to distribute the light into the room. Light tubes installed on the roof of building are used for daylight. The technique has been employed at the Potsdamer Platz, Berlin subterranean train station as observed by Andre and Schade (2002, P.30) Figure 5 showing tubular day lighting at Potsdamer Platz, Berlin subterranean train station. Andre and Schade (2002, P.30) The tube is fitted with a reflective material that guides light rays into the building from the entrance located on the roof or walls. Andre and Schade (2002, P.30) assert that the tube is able to sufficiently light subterranean train station in Potsdamer Platz, Berlin. Responsive Architecture and Temperature The double glass wall which is today commonly used, especially in urban areas, also owe its origin to biomimetics. Before this design came, there was the building skin which was inspired by the skin’s function to protect an organism’s body from vagaries of weather as well as give it shape. However, designers realized that the skin also functions as one of the body organs that regulate both temperature and moisture. It enables the internal system of an organism to work under a regulated environment. Likewise, the building skin is very important when it comes to providing ventilation as well as a thermally regulated environment. To improve the performance of the building skin, biometics was applied to come up with the double glass wall ventilated facade. This has been utilized as well as can be seen in examples such as the “self-cleaning Lotus-Effect Paint” commonly used in Germany, and the transpiring “Stomatex cladding.” Zimbabwe’s “Termite-Mound” building, which is thermally-regulated, also utilized the same design (Burkkume, 2007, p.62). Forbes is another good example of a biomimetic building. It is situated at NASA’s “Ames Research Center” in California. When the weather becomes hot, the building’s windows open, and its shades lower automatically to block the sun. This is due to the 5000 sensors in the building. These sensors are wireless, and function by measuring the level of carbon dioxide, its environmental temperature, and the air flow within the building. The same sensors also alert when air should be pumped into the “copper pipes in the ceiling from 106 wells” that have been dug “deep below a lawn nearby.” They also alert when the when heat should be turned on, that is, when it is getting cold. In addition, the building’s landscaping has native plants as well as “contoured” surfaces popularly known as “bioswales,” which assist the ground in absorbing more water so that there is a minimized runoff to “San Francisco Bay.” Figure 6 showing Forbes, a building NASA’s Ames Research Center in Mountain View, Calif. Source: Dolan (2012) Many other buildings also have day lighting designs to not only help in conserving energy, but also to provide lighting in buildings with no electricity or whenever there is a blackout (Barkkume, 2007, p.62-63). Responsive Architecture and Drought Drought as an impact of climate leads to water scarcity for residents. Architects have an opportunity of encouraging water conservation in buildings through coming up with architectural designs that promote water harvesting and recycling. In Germany, DaimlerChrysler Potsdamer Platz was introduced in Berlin to control flooding, and store water for the residents. According to Centgraf and Schmidt (2005, p. 4), rainwater is harvested from 19 buildings and stored in a 2300m3 rainwater basement tank. The water is used for flushing the toilet and watering the gardens. Figure 7 showing water harvesting at DaimlerChrysler Potsdamer Platz, Berlin Source: Dreiseiti, 2001 If implemented in most buildings, rainwater harvesting will significantly reduce the wastage of rain water and save the occupants of such building the agony of lack of water during the dry season. Building and Wind Tall buildings are prone to destruction from wind while in contrast, buildings can optimize natural ventilation from wind. The shape and orientation of a building determines its response to wind. Pank, Girardet and Cox (2002, p. 40) explains that the shape affects the loading on the structure and therefore this call for good aerodynamic design. The Swiss Reinsurance building in London has been designed to respond to wind. Pank, Girardet and Cox (2002, p. 40) describes that the building is circular and curves in and out from the bottom to top to enhance the passage of wind and consequently minimize turbulence effects and down-drafts. Figure 8 showing Swiss Reinsurance Building that is employing wind responsive designs Source: Pank, Girardet and Cox (2002, p. 40) Pank, Girardet and Cox (2002, p. 41) further explains that designers are exploring possibilities of generating electricity from wind turbines erected on tall buildings. Pank, Girardet and Cox (2002, p. 41) explains that there is a proposed 49 storey tower in Vauxhall that will help generate energy through wind power. This is informed by the fact that wind speed increases with increase in wind speed. This will help reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. In the design of building double skin facades systems are being used increasingly for as a wind responsive design. Double skin also known as double envelop as observed by (Boake, 2007, p.5) provides insulation against wind, extreme temperatures and sound. Tjibaou Center in New Caledonia used double skin design to reduce the vulnerability of the building to wind damage. Figure 9 showing Tjibaou Center in New Caledonia Source: Boake (2007, p.4) In the double facade, appropriate design of air spaces is important as they allow for improved airflow. The air cavity can be continuous vertically to draw air upward through principles of natural physics where hot air rises or may be divided vertically into bays that optimize the stack effect. Responsive Architecture and Flooding Climate change brings with it the possibility of occurrence of extreme weather conditions. Architects should strive to come up with flood responsive buildings to avert damage to property and lives. Bowker, Escarameia and Tagg (2007, p. 9) argues that water exclusion strategy adopted to ensure protect buildings from floods. This can be achieved by use of boundary walls and sealed gates that control the flooding into the building. In addition implementation of designs that allow water to go through the structure prevents destruction of building and control flooding. House drainage relief openings may be designed near the floor from where water that gets into the building during flooding can flow out through. Conclusion Buildings contribute significantly to climate change by the high amount of green house gas emissions they emit. To address this, there are various responsive architectural designs that should be adopted. Buildings should incorporate use of materials and designs that have little or no impacts to the environment. The designs should also aim at utilizing some of the elements of weather in buildings. Use of day light for indoor lighting during the day can be enhanced if various architectural designs are followed. In addition, wind is an important element that can be useful for ventilation within buildings. To achieve this, architects must implement one of the six different ventilation methods to help in cooling of the building. Responsive designs also calls for design of water efficient facilities and flood resistant buildings. One important thing to note is that most of the solutions achieved via evolutionary processes amongst organisms are never perfect in solving human problems. However, for professionals of the built environment to solve more pressing problems stemming from climate change, they have to consider how similar problems have been solved by various living organisms or even ecosystem within similar climatic conditions. Even if it does not give competent solutions, it may at least provide new areas for future research (Calabrese et al., 2009, p.54). References Andre, E. and Schade, J. 2002 ‘Daylighting by Optical Fiber’ pp30 Accessed. 22 January 2012 Barkkume, Allen M. 2007, ‘Innovative Building Skins: Double Glass Wall Ventilated Facade,’ pp.62-63. Accessed 21 January 2012. Boake, Terri Meyer.  “The Tectonics of the Double Skin: Green Building or Just more Hi-Tech Hi-Jinx?” North American Case Studies. Waterloo University, Pp 1-13. Accessed 22 January 2012 < http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/faculty_projects/terri/ds/tectonic.pdf> Bowker, P. Escarameia, M. and Tagg, A 2007, ‘Improving the flood performance of new buildings; Flood resilient construction’. Riba Publishing: Pp 1-100. Accessed 22 January 2012 < http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/br/flood_performance.pdf> Calabrese et al 2009, ‘The Architecture Annual 2007-2008: Deft University of Technology.’ Heerlen, Netherlands: 010 Publishers, p.54. 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Pp. 2 Accessed 22 January 2012 < http://www.cic.nyu.edu/staff/Staff%20Docs/DFID%20final%20version%20CIC.pdf> Fortmeyer, R. (Architectural records) 2008, ‘Project Council House 2 (Melbourne, Australia) Accessed 22 January 2012 < http://www.solaripedia.com/13/174/council_house_2_%28melbourne,_australia%29.html> Hensel, Michael; Achim Menges; and Michael Weinstock, 2006, ‘Techniques and technologies in morphogenetic design, p.128. Majal 2010, ‘Climate responsive architecture design parameters’. Heinrich Boll Stiftung: Pp 1-129: Accessed. 21 January 2012. http://primedesignpea.com/PDF%20Documents/2009,%20Majal,%20Sustainable%20Architecture%20Competition.pdf Mohr, Jakki J; Sanjit Sengupta; and Stanley F. Slater 2009 ‘Marketing of High-Technology Products and Innovations.’ Jakki Mohr, p.216. Newell, P.J., 2000, ‘Climate for change: non-state actors and the global politics of greenhouse’. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: pp 1-56 Pank, W. Girardet, H. and Cox, G. 2002, ‘Tall Buildings and Sustainability’. Corporation of London. Pp: 39-43 Accessed. 22 January 2012 Sterk, T. 2010, ‘Using Actuated Tensegrity Structure to Produce a Responsive Architecture’. The school of The Art Institute of Chicago, USA. Pp: 1-10 Accessed 22 January 2012 < http://3rdeye2010.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/responsive-architecture1.pdf > Thomas, Randall, and Trevor Garnham 2007, ‘The Environment of Architecture: environmental design in context.’ London: Taylor & Francis, p.61. Richard, M. G, 2005, ‘DaimlerChrysler's Bionic 70 mpg Concept Car’. Accessed 22 January 2012 Read More