The Palaeolithic Age - Admission/Application Essay Example

The Paleolithic Age: Cultural Evolution as a Consequence of Biological Evolution Introduction Up to the era of the Homo sapiens, humans- through evolution gradually developed larger brains, which led to better reasoning, introspection and language abilities. Gradual changes in the anatomy of the early hominin were critical in the cultural evolution of the Paleolithic era. This essay seeks to examine long-term trends in cultural and biological evolution during the Paleolithic age. Improved language capacities proved crucial in the development of culture through social learning and information sharing. As the brain size of the early human increased so did the awareness of his surroundings. Most commentators agree that early humankind’s views on science and religion are associated with an improved growth of the cognitive process and reasoning abilities. In what is perhaps humans’ earliest attempt at trying to figure out the meaning of their existence and the presence of a higher deity, the upper Paleolithic era witnessed the emergence of spiritual activity in the form burial and rituals. As the human brain developed and gradually became sophisticated, so did the ability to develop a wide variety of tools. Some commentators argue that earlier gradual human adaptation to bipedal (two-footed) movement was instrumental in the Paleolithic cultural evolution since hands, previously used to aid locomotion were thus freed to serve other purposes. A better developed human brain allowed for innovation geared towards tool specialization and other advances in art, agriculture and industry. Eating habits evolved with the availability of hunting tools such as harpoons, bows and arrows. Much later, the capacity for language proved instrumental in the sharing of information towards development of more effective tools. Ambrose (4) notes that burned bones retrieved from the Swartkrans cave in South Africa suggest systematic use of fire by hominins beginning 1 to 1.5 million years ago. Fire invention also had a enormous impact on the pre-historic eating culture. On the other hand, the development of canoes influenced migration and settlement thus leading to the colonization of new areas and eventually the emergence of varied cultural habits. Ambrose (1) argues that technological innovations are closely linked to the evolution of human biology and culture and that the history of evolution points to the fact that technological evolution occurred hand in hand with an increase in brain size, size of population and geographical range. This shows that as the number of hominins with developed language skills in an area increased, so did the capacity to share ideas for innovation. In addition, as the early hominid migrated, often over long distances on foot, scavenging for enough meat to nourish its growing body and brain, various physical changes took place. One of these changes was the development of a narrower pelvis for the purposes of increasing the energy efficiency of muscles in use during upright walking (BBC.com, 1) As the hominin brain size increased so did its problem solving skills. Thus far, it is clear that the foundation of early humankind’s culture was based on biological evolution. Paleolithic Tool Making and Art The discovery of simple stone tools in locations associated with the fossils of what may have been humans’ earliest ancestors from the Paleolithic era points to attempt by humans to develop items to make hunting easier. Ambrose (1) notes that there is no direct evidence for tool manufacture and use before 2.5 million years ago. Based on this fact, reconstructions of australopithecine tool innovations are mainly based on the behavior and anatomy of chimpanzees, human species’ closest relative (Ambrose 2). Observing the behavior of chimpanzees in stone tool-making and use, Ambrose (2) notes that they face anatomical limitations on the motion of their joints and strength for precision grips due to the fact that, by design, their movement is quadruped. The forelimbs, due to their role in the movement have not developed perfect precision grips. Long and curved fingers with a short thumb make the opposition of their fingertips in a firm pinch grip difficult. Since the anatomy of earlier hominids bore a striking resemblance to that of modern-day chimpanzees, one may argue this severely limited their ability towards precision tool use and developments. However, with biological evolution, the Homo erectus in the lower Paleolithic era gradually developed shorter straight fingers and a long firm thumb whose contact ability with the broad surface of fingertips increased stability when making and holding small tools (Ambrose 2). This anatomical development proved crucial in the development of hunting and gathering culture of the lower Paleolithic period. Ambrose (1) notes that as human dexterity in precision tool use improved, more sophisticated tools such as the hand axe appeared in what is present day Western Europe. Along side, the hand-axe innovation, a distinct and very different stone-tool industry, based on flakes of stone emerged (O’Neil 1). By 90,000-75,000 years ago, humans had embarked on a journey of producing new kinds of tools whose revolutionary impact warranted their inclusion in a different Paleolithic stage- the upper Paleolithic (O’Neil 1). During the upper Paleolithic age, hominins exhibited successful cultural adaptations to climatically distinct terrains all over the world. In the temperate and subarctic sections of the northern hemisphere, the crude big game hunting practiced played a enormous role in food provision (O’Neil, 1). According to O’Neil (1), as climate changes led to the melting of ice towards the end of the last ice age, big game animals became progressively difficult to find. This forced hominins to adapt to new eating habits. At this stage, fishing spears and hooks became common (O’Neil, 1). In the northern hemisphere, fishing activity involved going after salmon, spawn and seals in streams. In this case, therefore, changes in climate led to changes in the human subsistence pattern. The upper Paleolithic era witnessed the emergence of various tools used for making other tools (O’Neil 1). Tools such as narrow-gouging chisels known as burins were effectively employed in making and shaping a variety of other implements out of bone and ivory (O’Neil 1). The stone-tool industries of the upper Paleolithic age are unique from those of other era before in that they portray greater specification and a wide array of tool types. The upper Paleolithic age also saw the saw humans’ heavy dependence on multifaceted tools (O’Neil 1). O’Neil (1) notes that compound tools were of immense importance in that unlike other tools of the day they could be repaired. A broken section of the tool could simply be repaired rather than having to replace the entire tool. As the human cognitive ability developed, there was a corresponding need to find a medium to creatively express abstract thoughts and ideas and reproduce aspects of the environment. Some historians argue that since caves were prominent dwelling places in the upper Paleolithic era, then art -just like in modern day homes- served the purpose of decorating their homes. Paleolithic art with symbolic value may also have been employed in rituals or ceremonies including marriage and adulthood initiation rites (ASMS Social Studies, 1). Another perspective is that the cave-wall representations of animals and humans point to the artists’ use of magical rites with the aim of ensuring success in the hunting grounds or guarantee fertility (O’Neil 1). Modern day scholars have identified small sculptures, inscribed designs and cave wall reliefs as some of the forms of Paleolithic art. According to O’Neil (1), the artistic traditions of the upper Paleolithic era were dominated by small sculptured pieces. These works include simple figures made of stone, bones or clay. Scholars have also identified the Venus figures; small, abstract statuettes of women seemingly lending emphasis on female sexuality and fertility through huge breasts and an exaggerated pelvic area, as some of the sculptures from this era. In present day, northern Spain, the walls of the cave of Altamira bear testimony to a rich culture of one of humanity’s earliest attempt at recording day-to-day activities. The cave art is a combination of inscriptions and paintings detailing figures of animals and other aspects of upper Paleolithic era. As global temperatures rose thus leading to a warmer climate from 13,000 to 10,000 BP, human lifestyles experienced a massive transformation. Cave art was no exception. Thus, there exists little evidence of cave art after 11,000 BP (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization- UNESCO, 1). O’Neil (1) notes that some of the cave walls and bone artifacts bear patterns of incised lines that, to a keen observer, appear to have more meaning than just representational art. Some of the incisions on the wall create the impression of strict utilitarian tallies. Though paleoanthropologists are yet to know their actual purpose, markings on several cro-magnon bone artifacts dating as far back as 25,000 years ago, show a similar pattern of carefully inscribed lineal patterns of circular to crescent shaped markings. O’Neil (1) quoting Alexander Marshack points out to the possibility of one of these Cro-Magnon bones being used as a sort of lunar calendar. Therefore, this means that people were recognizant of the cyclical nature of seasons. Further, a 16,000 years old bone found at Mezhirich in Ukraine has a pattern of is evidently a map showing the countryside around a typical upper Paleolithic settlement (O’Neil 1). This indicates that humans in this era may have employed simple maps during hunting. On the whole, some of the archaeological discoveries, pointing to what appears to be set ups facilitating the presentation of offerings to higher deities or even the dead, lay the ground for claims of the practice of offering sacrifices in the Paleolithic age. Though there exists no definitive method towards reaching a conclusion as to whom the sacrifices were made, a comparison with modern-day occurrences in communities leading secluded lifestyles such as those found in the heart of the Amazon may lead to the conclusion that part of the sacrificed prey was an offering to a deity believed to dispense success especially in the hunting grounds. It is clear that cultural evolution during the Paleolithic age was the product of sustained biological evolution, especially concerning an increasing brain size. As humans’ cognitive ability became stronger and stronger, so did the curiosity and the urge to improve their state of being. The result was the development of tools needed to make life easier. The need to satisfy this urge and curiosity has over the years, proved the driving force behind humankind’s leap from one technological feat to the next. While some people would pose strong opposition to the statement that human beings in the modern age are still experiencing biological evolution, almost everyone will agree that society, courtesy of changes in technology, is still experiencing cultural evolution. Works cited Ambrose, Stanley, H. “Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution’. Science 291.5509 (2001): 1748-1753. ASFMS Social Media. “Early Humans Unit: Understanding Why Paleolithic Art Was Created”. Mitchellteachers.net. Web. 2 May 2014. . British Broadcasting Corporation. “Science and Nature: Pre-historic Life”. Bbc.com. Web. 2 May 2014. . O’neil, David. “Early Modern Human Culture”. Palomar.edu. Web. 2 May 2014. < http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_5.htm>. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain”. Unesco.org. Web. 2 May 2014. . Read More