Gender and Religion in South East Asia - Term Paper Example

?Gender and Religion in South East Asia: An anthropological Study The mainland of Southeast Asia consists of the present countries like Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Burma, Some parts of China and far eastern India. These countries have something special about their pattern of the gender and with religions. The different beliefs of the places were associated with their political, historical, social, cultural and ethnical strata of the society. Various religious beliefs predominated over the places for centuries and the recent forms of religions like Christianity, Buddhism and Islam came to these lands. The advent of the new religions shifted the position of the females too. Earlier the position of female in these places was held high and they enjoyed a prominent role in the society. As time passed by, there witnessed change in these two aspects. The present essay plunges an anthropological study into the matter of gender and religion at the Southeast Asian regions. Throughout the ages, religions and gender of South East Asia have got some kind of significance. Both these play a vital role in the anthropological development of the places. The article, ‘Transgenderisn and Gender Pluralism in Southeast Asia since Early Modern Times’ by Michael G. Peletx takes the words of Reid (1988,146) that “in the South East Asia the history tells that women predominated in a good many ritual contexts associated with agriculture, spiritual, and other religious powers that men could not match” (Peletz, 2006, 312). The women folk had a close association with the control of the society. The transgendered individuals (male bodied but dressed in female dress) too had taken a key position in the rituals of the people. High levels of sexuality and erotic attributes were associated with such transgendered individuals. The over power of feminine gave way for the creation of females goddesses in many of the Southeastern Asia. South East Asia has been a place of the amalgamation of different religions. The major religions of this place are Islam, Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism and Christianity. It can be seen in the places that there was a shift from the indigenous religious traditions to Christianity and Islam and Buddhism. The indigenous religious groups of the Southeast Asia can be divided into two major classes- lowlanders and highlanders. “The lowlanders occupy the plains and valleys and cultivate wet rice; they are organized into stratified societies and states traditionally headed by divine kings” (Winzeler, 2008, p.271). Among the major lowlanders include Thai of Thailand, Lao of Laos, Khemer of Kambodia, Shan of northeastern Burma, Vietnamese of Vietnam and Burmese of Burma. Owing to the influence of India and Hindu- Buddhist traditions the lowlanders were turned to be ‘Theravada Buddhists’ (Theravada being the southern tradition, or the “smaller vehicle” of Buddhism) (Winzeler, 2008, p.271). The highlanders live at the mountains and “were traditionally organized at the village level as tribal societies rather than states, are generally egalitarian, and migrate frequently” (Winzeler, 2008, p.271). These highlanders are more influenced by China and so they stick on to their own native beliefs which usually included shamanism (Winzeler, 2008, p.271). The entry of the Western world had its effect in the land. Some of the ethnic religious beliefs gave way for Christianity. The dominance of the Christianity has paved way the change of religion in some of the places. The post colonial aspects of gender have played a crucial role in the socio political milieu of the countries which are commonly called as Southeast Asia. As most of the south eastern countries have embraced Theravada Buddhism which gave a new outlook for the women folk of the religion. The female ascetics were honored well in the society. In comparison with the female monks of the other nations like Japan, China, and India the feminine gender of the Southeast Asian countries enjoyed supremacy in their total procedures as women. The mother symbol was predominant in Theravada Buddhism. Keeping mother as supreme and giving her a prime place was a salient feature of the Buddhism and this kind of practices kept a place for the female subjects. As Theravada Buddhism gave chance for the full ordination of the women ascetics, there was a flow of the women nuns to Theravada Buddhism. Barbara Watson Andaya takes the words of Charles Keys “most scholars agree that ceremonies associated with Theravada accord mothers a special place, and that positive images of motherhood are fostered by images projected in village ‘texts’- sermons, folk operas, courting songs, agricultural rituals and myths.” (Andaya, 2002, p.7). In all these levels this type of religious position of the women folk in Southeast Asia gave a positive shift to Theravada Buddhism in the countries like Thailand and Cambodia. The Buddhist practices of Sri Lanka and India were different. The monks’ dominance was vivid in these places. The actual practice of the society where women are marginalized in all levels resembled in religion too. So the religious nuns in these countries had to undergo the same practices of the society towards women. The practice in Philippines was different. The colonial invaders came with their religion. The practice of priestess’ performing rituals in the animist group was strongly objected by the Catholicism. The role of female priestess was eroded for the supremacy of the male priests in the religion. This shift had resulted to the hegemony of Catholicism in the land. Carolyn Brewer in his essay entitled ‘From Animist “Priestess” to Catholic Priest’ speaks the re/gendering of religious role of the females in Philippines. It was a place where female priestess enjoyed a high position in the society; but by the advent of Christianity in the country the position of females deteriorated. The ethnic groups gave way for Catholicism and so the priestesses of the ethnic religions of the places were vanished and the Catholic dominated priests overruled the land. The writer further says, “Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, women’s religious power and authority was further eroded to the extent that where Animism did resist the hegemony of Catholicism, male baylans, previously subservient to their female counterparts, assumed the prestigious Animist religious roles” (Brewer, n. d. p.70). The voyage of Megallen to Philippines has turned the country fully occupied by the Christian elements. Thus very soon the socio, political, cultural and ethnic aspects of gender distribution were shattered for the new rules of the new religion. Many of the primitive rituals where the women priestesses had a great role to play were fully devastated by the Christian missionaries. The different idols and pictures which show the presence of the women were mostly destroyed by calling them all pagans and against God’s will. The arrival of Catholicism in Philippines completely made havoc for the indigenous women of the land. The priests of Catholicism in Southeast Asia tried their level best to exterminate Animist belief and practices and so the remaining women folk had to obey the patriarchal hegemony of the male folk. Throughout the countries of the South East Asian regions, clear cut deterioration on the religious position of the women folk can be seen in these years. The structure of the society got changed and female self was put under the patriarchal dominance of the new religion. As with the case of female position in the religious realm of the countries many protests are put forward but no significant movement was there. At present the nuns like Mae Chi Ahree Pongsai who placed a complaint to take charge of the Thai Nalanda Temple, near Patna, India make out their point to take charge of the Buddhist temples. The court’s verdict was in favor of the nun (Gender and religion: Where nuns fear to tread, 2011). This has led the monks strongly resist the female demands for the independent charge of the temples. Southeast Asia has been considered to be a place where the kinship system prevailed for long. This period witnessed an equality of gender among the ethnic religions of the places. Later the world religions crept in to the area. As stated by Frances S. Adeney regarding the condition of Indonesia, “ World religions have influenced indigenous cultures, beginning with the incursion of Hinduism and Buddhism in the eighth and ninth centuries and proceeding through the arrival of Islam to that of Christianity” (Adeney, 2003, p.8). The advent all these religions made Southeast Asia a region of religious plurality. The entry of these religions has made the power shift to the hands of male religious leaders. The equal status once enjoyed by the women was put into thin air. Among the major religions of Southeast Asia Islam is the dominant one. Together with Islam Buddhism takes a key part in these areas. Up to very recently indigenous gender system was there in Thailand and Burma but the over dominance of the newer religions have shifted the gender system of the places. True in some of the interior areas the traditional practices are still going on with giving equal status for the women. In Vietnam as puts by Victor T. King and William D. Wilder “the Vietnamese domestic group dependent on female management and is expected to be so” (King & Wilder, 2003, p.279). But for many the Vietnamese gender system is considered to be a shame. The writers further put the example of O’Harrow as he considers it as a dysfunction in gender systems (King & Wilder, 2003, p.279). The present conditions of these states are a bit different from their attitudes and practices. The modern world has necessitated the involvement of women in the ‘plants’. These plants require human resource to a large level. To the amaze of the stubborn religious people of the Southeast Asian countries the participation of the women is on the rise. As put by the writers, “Another response is seen in the growth of regional and overseas labor migration from South- East Asia, in which women are as, prominent than men” (King & Wilder, 2003, p.280). This indicates the shift of the society towards the earlier stage of gender equality. The modern job descriptions compel the men folk to consider the position of women as important as that of men in the society. Conclusions As with the case of gender and religion in Southeast Asian countries it can be very well analyzed with the measuring scale of anthropology. It can be seen that the basic elements of the society got changed due to the invasion of the different religions. The indigenous groups which flourished on the soil of Southeast Asia had given equal gender status. The female priestesses were very common and they placed an important position in the society. The arrival of religions starting from Hinduism and Buddhism and ending with Islam into the land of these indigenous groups caused for the deterioration in the position of the women. The male dominance of these religions has caused the extinction of such indigenous groups. The gender disparity has affected even in Theravada Buddhism, even though the level of it is mild. The gender disparity has been seen as on the fall, as the modern working conditions necessitated the equal status of male and female. The culture of a country can never be swept away by the external forces and so with the cases of theses Southeast Asian countries. The old practices of giving prominence to the women folk are coming back in another manner. The industrial setup of the society has given the lost reputation of the women comeback. So the anthropological study of the gender system and religions in Southeast Asia clearly analyzes the evolution of the society from one form to another. The study has proved how and why such changes took place in the social, political, and cultural system of the Southeast Asian countries. Works cited Andaya B.W. Women, motherhood and the Appeal of Early Theravada Buddhism. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press, 2002. 33(1) 1-30. Adeney F.S. Christian women in Indonesia: a narrative study of gender and religion. Illustrated edn. Syracuse University Press, 2003. Print. Brewer C. ‘From Animist “Priestess” to Catholic Priest.’ Centre for Asian Studies, University of Hawaii, Manoa. Gender and religion: Where nuns fear to tread. Budhistdoor.com. 2011. Web. 30 Oct, 2011. http://mingkok.buddhistdoor.com/en/news/d/18886 King V.T., Wilder W.D. The modern anthropology of South-East Asia: an introduction. Illustrated edn. Routledge, 2003. Print. Peletz, M.G. “Transgenderism and Gender Pluralism in Southeast Asia since Early Modern Times.” Current Anthropology 47 (2006): 309-340. Print. http://gendersex.net/spring2011/files/study-guide-for-peletz-transhistory-asia1.pdf Winzeler R.L. Anthropology and religion: what we know, think, and question. Rowman Altamira, 2008. Print. Read More